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Class_._TX.3 15_ 



PRESENTCD BY \^ ^ 



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E. D. MEIER, THEO. G. MEIER, E. R. FISH, 

Pres't and Chief Engineer. Vice-Pres't and Treas. Secretary. 



THE HEINE SAFETY 
BOILER CO. 



MANUFACTURERS OF 



WATER TUBE STEAM BOILERS 



PRESSURES, DUTIES AND FUELS. 



MAIX OFFICE 



Rooms TO.S to 708 Commonwealth Trust Building, No. 421 Olive Street, 
ST. LOUIS. MO. 







SHOI^S,:, . ..> 


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„ » » » » J 

PHOiNINVILLE, Pa. i J i » 5T. 


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BRANXH OFFICES: 






NEW YORK, N. 


Y. 


PHILADELPHIA, PA. 


CHICAGO, 


ILL. 


11 Broadway. 




OUO FiDEi.iTV Bldc;. 


1521 Monadnock Bldg 




BOSTON, 


MASS. prrrsBURG, pa. 






521 Weld 


Bldg. 1101 Park 


Bldg, 




NEW 


ORLEANS, LA. 




ATLANTA, GA. 




508 Godchaux Bldg. 




Empire Bldg. 






REPRESENTATIVES 


. 




DENVER, COLO. 




SAN FRANCISCO, 


CAL. 


Stearns- Roger Mfg. Co. 




Risdon Iron and Loco 


Works. 




DALLAS, TEX. 


TORONTO, ONT. 




H. 


W. Graber Mach. 


Co. Canadian 


Heine Safety Boiler Co. 





ST. LOUIS, MO., JULY 1, 1902. 



SHALLCROSS PRINT, ST. LOUIS 




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PREFACE TO 
NINTH EDITION. 

A S new matter from time to time appears, we 
find it necessary to make changes in Helios, 
omitting parts which seem of lesser importance 
and inserting new articles of greater interest. In 
this edition we have considerably abridged the 
chapters on fuel oil and fuel gas. The 1898 code 
of the A. S. M. E. for boiler tests has been sub- 
stituted for 1885 code. We have also added an 
entirely new feature, ''The Standard Boiler Speci- 
fications," in an abridged form, adopted by the 
American Boiler Manufacturers' Association, and 
believe that by so doing we give the book a 
greater and more lasting value. 

March /, i8gg. 
Jlcprint September i. igoo. Reprint July 7, igo2. 




HELIOS. 

Source of All Power! Fountain of Light and Warmth !1 

Adored by the ancient husbandman as the God who blessed his 
labors with a harvest of golden grain ; revered by the early sage as 
the great visible means of the divine creative force ; pictured by the 
inspired artist as the tireless charioteer who drives his four fiery 
steeds daily across the heavens, his head circled by a crown of rays 
his chariot wheel the disk of the sun itself. 

When primeval man began to think, the sun seemed to him the 
cause of all those wonders in nature which ministered to his simple 
wants, or taught his soul to hope. His crude feelings of awe and 
gratitude blossomed into worship, and we fmd the sun as central figure 
in all early religions. He was the Suraya of the Hindoos, the Baal 
of the Phoenicians, the Odin of the Norsemen, and his temples arose 
alike in ancient Mexico and Peru. As Mithras of the Parsees, he was 
adored as the symbol of the Supreme Deity, his messenger and agent 
for all good. As Osiris he received the worship and offerings of the 
Egyptians, whose priests, early adepts in the rudiments of science, 
saw in him the cause of the annual fructifying overflow of the Nile. 

Modern knowledge, with its vast array of facts and figures, can 
but verify and seal the faith of these ancient observers. What they 
dimly discerned as probable is now the central fact of physical science. 
From him are derived all the forces of nature which have been yoked 
into the service of man. All animal and plant life draws its daily 
sustenance from the warmth and light of the sun, and it is but his 
transmuted energy we expend, when, with muscle of man or horse, we 
load our truck or roll it along the highway. Do we irrigate the soil 
from the pumps of a myriad windmills ? His rays, on plains far inland, 
supply the energy for the breeze which turns their vanes ! 

Does a lumbering wheel drive a dozen stamps and a primitive 
arastra in some Mexican canyon ? Do mighty turbines whirl a million 
flying spindles and shake thousands of clattering looms on the banks 
of some New England stream ? From the bosom of the ocean and the 
swamps of the tropics, Helios lifted those vapory Titans whose lifeblood 
courses in the mountain torrent and the river of the plain ! 



Do a hundred cars rattle up the steep streets of the smiling city 
by the Golden Gate ? Are massive ingots of steel forged to shape 
and size by the giant hammers of Bethlehem ? The fuel which 
gives them motion was stored for us, ages before man was evolved, 
by the rays which flash from his chariot wheels! **The heat now 
radiating from our fire places has at some time previously been trans- 
mitted to the earth from the sun. If it be wood that we are burning, 
then we are using the sunbeams that have shone on the earth within 
a few decades. If it be coal, then we are transforming to heat ths 
solar energy which arrived at the earth millions of years ago." 

Professor Langley remarks that "the great coal fields of Pennsyl- 
vania contain enough of the precious mineral to supply the wants of 
the United States for a thousand years. If all that tremendous 
accumulation of fuel were to be extracted and burned in one vast 
conflagration, the total quantity of heat that would be produced would, 
no doubt, be stupendous, and yet," says this authority, who has taught 
us so much about the sun, ''all the heat developed by that terrific 
coal fire would not be equal to that which the sun pours forth in 
the thousandth part of each single second." 

The almost limitless stores of petroleum which are found in 
America and in Asia, and the smaller, though still vast supplies of 
natural gas which some favored localities are now exploiting, represent 
but so much sun-energy transmuted through forests of prehistoric 
vegetation. 

Another authority tells us that the total amount of living force 
"which the sun pours out yearly upon every acre of the earth's 
surface, chiefly in the form of heat is 800,000 horse-power." And 
he estimates that a flourishing crop utilizes only 3-% of 1 per cent of 
this power. 

Remembering, then, that this sun-energy reaches us only one-half 
of each day, we may, whenever we learn how, pick up on every acre 
an average of 175 horse-power during each hour of daylight, as a 
surplus which nature does not require for her work of food production. 

Attempts to utilize this daily waste have been made, and future 
inventors may fire their boilers directly with the radiant heat of the 
sun. But whether we depend on what he garnered for us ages ago, 
or quite recently, or on the stores he will lavish on us in the future, 
it is clear that man's continued existence on earth is directly dependent 
on Helios. 

In olden times the various trades or guilds chose as their patron 
saint some prominent person who was thought to have embodied in 
his life-work the special means and methods of their craft. By that 

2 



token we claim Helios as our own. He has always carried the record 
for evaporative efficiency. He provides both the fuel and the water 
for our boilers. He teaches us perfect circulation, upward as mingled 
vapor and water by the action of heat, and down again by gravity 
as rain and river in solid water. It is therefore fit that the boiler in 
which this perfect and unobstructed circulation is made the leading 
feature of construction should have HELIOS as its emblem! 




In the following pages we give some account of the fuels used 
in the practical arts, of the water which becomes the vehicle for 
transmitting their energy into mechanical power, and of the limitations 
imposed by their varying conditions. These must all be taken into 
account in estimating how much we may expect of certain combina- 
tions of machinery. Much of the text and many of the tables are 
taken from Mr. David Kinnear Clark's admirable book on the steam 
engine, for which his consent and that of his publishers, Messrs. 
Blackie & Son, was courteously given. We also, by permission, 
quote freely from such authorities as Mr. Emerson McMillin, Prof. Wm. 
B. Potter, Prof. R. H. Thurston, Mr. J. M. Whitham, Prof. D. S. 
Jacobus, Prof. Ordway and others. Thanks are also due for valuable 
matter to Messrs. Henry R. Worthington, The B. F. Sturtevant Co., 
Mr. Alfred R. Wolff, Mr. C. W. Owston and Messrs. Hunt & Clapp. 
In most instances we indicate the scource by initials. 

We trust that the tables and data may be found convenient for 
ready reference alike by professional men, by manufacturers, and by 
that growing class of practical steam engineers who realize that true 
theory, consonant with collective experience, is within the reach of 
every thoughtful man who pulls the throttle. 

E. D. M. 



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HEAT. 

Heat is the form in which we receive most of the sun-energy. In the 
various fuels it exists in a potential form requiring combustion, i. <?., combi- 
nation of the active elements of the fuel with the oxygen of the air, to 
reappear in its active form. 

''Heat as a Form of Energy is subject to the general laws which gov- 
ern every form of energy and control all matter in motion, whether that 
motion be molecular or the movement of masses. 

"That heat is the motion of the molecules of bodies was first shown by 
experiment by Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, then in the service of 
the Bavarian Government, who in 1798 presented a paper to the Royal 
Society of Great Britain, describing his work, and reciting the results and 
his conclusion that heat is not substance, but a form of energy. 

*'This paper is of very great historical interest, as the now accepted 
doctrine of the persistence of energy is a generalization which arose out of a 
series of investigations, the most important of which are those which resulted 
in the determination of the existence of a definite quantivalent relation be- 
tween these two forms of energy and a measurement of its value, now known 
as the 'mechanical equivalent of heat.* The experiment consisted in the de- 
termination of the quantity of heat produced by the boring of a cannon at the 
arsenal at Munich." 

Work in the same direction was done by Sir Humphrey Davy, Sadi 
Carnot, Dr. Mayer and Mr. Colding. But Dr. Joule, from 1843 to 1849, 
made a series of experiments by various methods, the results of which 
have been generally accepted as satisfactory. 

Quantities of heat are measured, in English units, by what is termed 
the British Thermal Unit, or for brevity, B. T. U. The B. T. U. is the 
quantity of heat required to raise 1 lb. of pure water from a temperature of 
62° F. to 63° F., and has an equivalent in mechanical units of work. This is 
frequently called simply a Heat Unit or designated by H. U. 

The mechanical unit of work is the foot-pound^ or the work required 
to raise 1 pound, 1 foot high. Joule's experiments, and those of later investi- 
gators, show 778 ft. lbs. to be equivalent to one B. T. U. This number, 
778, is known as Joule's equivalent or symbolically J. 33000 ft. lbs. per 
min. was called a horse power by Watt, and is used as such to-day, it being 
the unit for large powers. 

The electrical unit of power is the Watt, which is the product of 1 ampere 
Xlvolt. 746 Watts are equivalent to IH. P. or 83000 ft. lbs. Hence the Watt 
has an equivalent in heat units also. 

Water power is measured in terms of the height of fall or velocity of flow, 
and the quantity or weight of water passing, the result, however, being in 
mechanical units. Hence P=HxWxV, where P = ft. lbs. per sec, H = 
height of fall in ft., W= weight per cu. ft. of water, V= cubic feet of 
water failing per second. 



Since V'' =2 gH. we have P =l^X V X W where P, V, andW, are the 
same as before and v the velocity of flow of the water in ft. per sec. and 
g==32.2. 

Owing to the frictional losses and the inefficiency of all kinds of water 
motors, more than 80 per cent, of this theoretical power is rarely ever realized. 
The best types of water motors give only 8tf to 90 per cent, efficiency. 

The following table shows the relation of the various units : 

Table No. 1. 
Equivalents of Work and Heat. 

B. T. U. ■ Ft. lbs. Watts. 

1 ^ 778 =, 17.59 

42.41 -= 33000 = 746 -= 1 H. P. 

In the French or metric system of units, a Heat Unit or Calorie is the 
quantity of heat required to raise 1 Kilogram of pure water 1° Cent, at or 
about 4° C. 

The following tabular statement shows the relation of the French and 
English units : 

Table No. 2. 

French and English Units Compared. 

1 Calorie 3.968 B. T. U. 

0.252 Calorie 1 B. T. U. 

French Mechanical Equivalent, ) ^ ^^^^ ^^ y^^ 

425.0 Kilogram-metres, 3 

107.7 Kilogram-metres J, or 778 ft. lbs. 

For convenience in translating French or German results in to English 
or American we have the following compound units : 

Table No. 8. 
Equivalent Compound Units. 

1 Calorie per square metre_-__ 0.369 B. T. U. p. square ft. 

1 B. T. U. or 1 H. U. p. square ft 2.713 Cal. p. square metre. 

1 Calorie p. Kilogram 1.800 H. U. per pound. 

1 H. U. p. pound 0.556 Cal. p. Kilogram. 

''Heat Transformations may take place, through the action of physi- 
cal and chemical forces, into any other known form of energy, and another 
form of energy may be transmuted into heat. Nearly all physical pheno- 
mena, in fact, involve heat-transformation in one form or another, and in a 
greater or less degree, under the laws of energetics. According to the first 
of those laws, such changes must always occur by a definite quantivalence, 
and when heat disappears in known quantity it is always certain that 
energy of calculable amount will appear as its equivalent ; the reverse is as 
invariably the case when heat is produced ; it always represents and meas- 
ures an equivalent amount of mechanical, electrical, chemical, or other 
energy. 

6 



**Heat and Mechanical Energy are thus evidently subject to the general 
iaws of transformation of energy, and the transmutation of the one into the 
other must always be capable of treatment mathematically. The relations 
of these two forms of energy are taken as the subject of a division of ener- 
getics known as the science of thermodynamics, and a vast amount of 
study and research has been given by the ablest mathematical physicists of 
modern times to the investigation of its laws and their applications, and to 
the building up of that science. 

''The conversion of water into steam in the steam boiler and the utiliza- 
tion of the heat-energy thus made available, or in heated air and other 
gases, in steam or other heat-engines, constitute at once the most familiar 
and the most important of known illustrations of thermodynamic phenomena 
and their useful application. The process of making steam is one of pro- 
duction of heat by transformation from the potential form of energy through 
the action of chemical forces, and its storage in sensible form for later use 
in the steam-engine, where it is changed into equivalent mechanical energy. 
The pure science of the steam-engine is thus the science of thermodynamics, 
the first applications of which are made in the operations carried on in the 
steam-boiler. 

"Sensible and Latent Heats must be carefully distinguished in study- 
ing the action of heat on matter. The term 'Sensible Heat' scarcely re- 
quires definition ; but it may be said that sensible and latent heats represent 
latent and sensible work ; that the former is actual, kinetic, heat-energy, 
capable of transformation into mechanical energy, or vis viva of masses, 
and into mechanical work ; while the latter form is not heat, but is the 
equivalent of heat transformed to produce a visible effect in the performance 
of molecular, or internal as well as external, work, and visible alteration of 
volume and other physical conditions. 

'*It is seen that heat may become 'latent' through any transformation 
which results in a definite and defined physical change, produced by expan- 
sion of any substance in consequence of such transmutation into internal and 
external work ; whether it be simple increase of volume or such increase 
with change of physical state. 

''The Latent Heat of Expansion is a name for that heat which is 
demanded to produce an increase of volume, as distinguished from that un- 
transformed heat which is absorbed by the substance to produce elevation of 
temperature. The latent heat of expansion may, by its absorption and 
transformation, and the resulting performance of internal and external work, 
cause no other effect than change of volume, as e. g., when air is heated , 
or it may at the same time produce an alteration of the solid to the fluid, or 
of the liquid to the vaporous state, as in the melting of ice or the boiling of 
water, in which latter cases, as it happens, no elevation of temperature 
occurs, all heat received being at once transformed. In the expansion of 
air, and in other cases in which no such change of state occurs, a part of 
the heat absorbed remains unchanged, producing elevation of temperature ; 
while another part is transformed into latent heat of expansion." 

R. H. T. 



We give below tables of the boiling and melting points of various 
substances, and the linear expansion of various solids. 

TABLE No. 4. 

Boiling Points of Various Substances. 

At Atmospheric Pressure at Sea Level. 



SUBSTANCE. 



Alcohol 

Ammonia 

Benzine 

Coal Tar 

Linseed Oil 

Mercury 

Naptha 

Nitric Acid, s. g. 1.42 
Nitric Acid, s. g. 1.5- 
Petroleum Rectified — 



Degrees 
Fahr. 



173 
140 
176 
325 
597 
648 
186 
248 
210 
316 



SUBSTANCE. 



Sulphur 

Sulphuric Acid, s. g. 1.848-_ 

Sulphuric Acid, s. g. 1.3 

Sulphuric Ether 

Turpentine 

Water 

Water, Sea 

Water, Saturated Brine 

Wood Spirit 



Degrees 
Fahr. 



570 

590 

240 

100 

315 

212 

213.2 

226 

150 



Table No. 5. 



Melting Points of Metals. 



From D. K. C. 



METAL. 



Aluminum 

Antimony 

Bismuth 

Bronze 

Copper 

Gold, Standard — 

Gold, Pure 

Iron, Cast, Gray- 
Iron, Cast, White 

Iron, Wrought 

Lead 

Mercury 

Silver 

Steel - 

Tin 

Zinc 



Degrees 
Fahr. 



Full Red 
Heat. 

1150 

507 
1690 
1996 
2156 

2282 
2012 

rl922 

< to 

1 2012 

2912 

617 

—39 

1873 

r2372 

< to 

12552 
442 
773 



Melting Points of Various Solids. 

From D. K. C. and H. 



SUBSTANCE. 



Degrees 
Fahr. 



Carbonic Acid- 
Glass 

Ice 

Lard 

Nitro-Glycerine 

Phosphorus 

Pitch 

Saltpetre 

Spermaceti 

Stearine 

Sulphur 

Tallow 

Turpentine 

Wax, Rough--- 
Wax, Bleached 



-108 

2377 

32 

95 

45 

112 

91 

606 

120 

109 

^ to 

1 120 

239 

92 

14 

142 

154 






Melting Points of Fusible Plugs. 



From D. K. C. 





Softens at 


Melts at 




Softens at 


Melts at 


2 Tin, 2 Lead 

2 Tin, 6 Lead 


365 
372 


372 
383 


2 Tin,^ 7 Lead 

2 Tin, 8 Lead 


377J 
395i 


388 
408 



Table No. 6. 
Expansion of Solids at Ordinary Temperatures. 

D. K. c. 



SUBSTANCE. 



Aluminum (Cast) 

Antimony (Crystallized) 

Brass (Cast) 

Brass (English Plate) 

Brass (Sheet) 

Brick (Best Stock) 

Brick in Cement Mortar (Headers) 
Brick in Cement Mortar(Stretchers) 

Bronze 

Cement (Roman, Dry) 

Cement (Portland, Neat) 

Cement (Portland, with Sand)--- 

Copper 

Glass (Flint) — 

Glass (White, Free from Lead)-- 

Glass (Blown) 

Glass (Thermometer) 

Glass (Hard) 

Granite (Gray, Dry) 

Granite (Red, Dry) 

Gold (Pure) 

Iron (Wrought) 

Iron (Swedish) 

Iron (Cast) 

Iron (Soft) 

Lead 

Marble (Ordinary, Dry) 

Marble (Ordinary, Moist) 

Mercury (Cubic Expansion) 

Nickel 

Plaster (White) 

Platinum 

Silver (Pure) 

Slate 

Steel (Cast) 

Steel (Tempered) 

Stone (Sand, Dry) ---- 

Tin 

Wood (Pine) 

Zinc 

Zinc 8, Tin 1 



Coefficient 

for 

l** Fahr. 



.00001234 
.00000627 
.00000957 
.00001052 
.00001040 
.00000306 
.00000494 
.00000256 
.00000975 
.00000797 
.00000594 
.00000656 
.00000887 
.00000451 
.00000492 
.00000498 
.00000499 
.00000397 
.00000438 
.00000498 
.00000786 
.00000648 
.00000636 
.00000556 
.00C00626 
.00001571 
.00000363 
.00000663 
.00009984 
.00000695 
.00000922 
.00000479 
.00001079 
.00000577 
.00000636 
.00000689 
.00000652 
.00001163 
.00000276 
.00001407 
.00001496 



Total Expan 


sion between 


Coeffi 


cient. 


Decimal. 

.002221 


Fraction. 


V450 


.001129 


V885 


.001723 


V581 


.001894 


V529 


.001872 


V535 


.000550 


Vl818 


.000890 


^/ll23 


.000460 


V2174 


.001755 


^/568 


.001435 


V694 


.001070 


V935 


.001180 


1/847 


.001596 


V625 


.000812 


V1234 


.000886 


VH30 


.000896 


Viin 


.000897 


Villi 


.000714 


■'/1400 


.000789 


1/1266 


.000897 


Vim 


.001415 


V707 


.001166 


1/866 


.001145 


V873 


.001001 


1/1000 


.001126 


1/897 


.002828 


1/353 


.000654 


1/1.530 


.001193 


1/838 


.017971 


1/56 


.001251 


i/soo 


.001660 


1/602 


.000863 


1/1159 


.001943 


1/514 


.001038 


1/967 


.001144 


1/874 


.001240 


1/806 


.001174 


1/852 


.002094 


1/477 


.000496 


I/2OI6 


.002532 


1/395 


.002692 


1/372 



32"^ Fahr. and 212° Fahr. 



In Length of 10 Feet. 



Feet. 
.02221 

.01129 

.01723 

.01894 

.01872 

.00550 

.00890 

.00460 

.01755 

.01435 

.01070 

.01180 

.01596 

.00812 

.00886 

.00896 

.00897 

.00714 

.00789 

.00897 

.01415 

.01166 

.01145 

.01001 

.01126 

.02828 

.00654 

.01193 

.17971 

.01251 

.01660 

.00863 

.01943 

.01038 

.01144 

.01240 

.01174 

.02094 

.00496 

.02532 

.02692 



Inches. 
.2664 

.1336 

.2067 

.2273 

.2246 

.0660 

.1068 

.0552 

.2106 

.1722 

.1284 

.1416 

.1915 

.0974 

.1063 

.1075 

.1076 

.0857 

.0947 

.1076 

.1698 

.1399 

.1374 

.1201 

.1351 

.3394 

.0785 

.1432 

2.1565 

.1501 

.1992 

.1036 

.2334 

.1246 

.1373 

.1488 

.14C9 

.2513 

.0595 

.3038 

.3230 



10 



The Specific Heat of a body signifies its capacity for heat or the quan- 
tity of heat required to raise the temperature of the body one degree 
Fahrenheit, compared with that required to raise the temperature of an 
equal weight of water one degree. 

Table no. 7. 

Specific Heats. 

D. K. C. 

■ — I 



SUBSTANCE. 



Ice 

Water at 32° F 

Gaseous Steam 

Saturated Steam.. 

Mercury 

Sulphuric Ether, 

Density .715 

Alcohol 

Lead 

Gold 

Tin 

Silver 

Brass 

Copper 

Zinc 

Nickel , 

Wrought Iron 

Steel 

Cast Iron 

Brickwork and Ma 

sonry 

Coal 



SPECIFIC HEAT. 



0.504 
1.000 
0.475 
0.305 
0.0333 

0.5200 

0.6588 

0.0314 

0.0324 

0.0566 

0.0570 

0.0939 

0.0951 

0.0956 

0.1086 
1138 to 0.1255 
1165 to 0.1185 

0.1298 

0.200 
0.2411 



SUBSTANCE. 



SPECIFIC HEAT. 



Anthracite 

Oak Wood 

Fir Wood 

Oxygen (Equal 

Weights ; Con 

stant Volume)... 
Air ( at Constant 

Pressure) 

Air (Equal Weights 

Constant Vol.) 
Nitrogen (Equal 

Wgts ; Constant 

Volume) 

Hydrogen (Equal 

Wgts; Constant 

Volume) 

Carbonic Oxide 

(Equal Weights; 

Constant Vol.) .. 
Carbonic Acid 

(Equal Weights; 

Constant Vol.) .. 



0.2017 

0.570 

0.650 



0.1559 
0.2377 
0.1688 

0.1740 

2.4096 

0.1768 

0.1714 




Hotel Van Nuys, 

LOS ANGELES, CAL. 

Contains 200 H. P. of Heine Boilers. 



11 



COMBUSTION. 

Combustion or Burning is the chemical combination of the constituents 
of the fuel, mostly carbon and hydrogen, with the oxygen of the air. The 
nitrogen remains inert and causes loss of useful effect to the extent of the 
heat it carries off through the chimney. 

The hydrogen combines with enough oxygen to form water which 
passes off as steam. 

The carbon combines with enough oxygen to form carbonic acid or car- 
bon dioxide gas (perfect combustion) or with only enough to form carbonic 
oxide or carbon monoxide gas (imperfect combustion). 

The following table gives the quantities of air, the heat evolved and the 
resulting temperature from the combustion of constituent parts of fuel, under 
the supposition that the chemical requirements are exactly fulfilled : 



TABLE No. 8. 

Combustion Data. 

o. H. L. 



Combustible. 


Atomic 
Weight. 


Combustion Product. 


Wgt. of 
Oxygen 
per lb of 

Com- 
bustible 


Amount of air 
consumed per lb. 
of combustible. 


Calorific 
power.Heat 
units p. lb of 
combus'ble 


Resulting 
temperat'e of 
com bustion. 
No su r p 1 u s 
air assumed. 




(H)=rl 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Cn. ft. 
62° F. 


B.T. U. 


Deg. Fahr. 


Oxygen (O) 

Hydrogen (H) 

Carbon (C) 

Carbon (C) 

Carbonic oxide 
(CO) - 


16 

1 

12 

12 

28 

16 

23 
32 














Water (H2O) 

Carbonic oxide (CO)- 
Carbon dioxide (CO2)- 

Carbon dioxide 

CO2 and H2O 

CO2 and H2O 

SO2 


8.0 

1.33 

2.66 

0.57 

4.00 

3.43 
1.00 


34.8 

5.8 

11.6 

2.48 

17.4 

15.0 
4.35 


457 

76 

152 

33 

229 

196 
57 


62032 

4452 

14500 

4325 

26383 

21290 
4032 


5898 
2358 
4939 

5508 


Marsh gas (C. H4) 
(light hydrocar'n) 

defiant gas (C2H4) 
(heavy hydrocar- 
bon) - -- 


9624 

9775 


Sulphur (S) 


3637 



Conditions for the Complete Combustion of Fuel in Furnaces. 

For insuring completeness of combustion, the first condition is a sufficient 
supply of air ; the next is that the air and the fuel, solid and gaseous, should 
be thoroughly mixed ; and the third is that the elements — air and combusti- 
ble gases — should be brought together and maintained at a sufficiently high 
temperature. The hotter the elements the greater is the facility for good 
combustion. 

Rule 1. To find the quantity of air at 62° F., under one atmosphere ^ 
chemically consumed in the cotnplete combustion of one pound of fuel of a given 
composition. Let the constituent carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen be expressed 
as percentages of the total weight of the fuel. To the carbon add three 
times the hydrogen, and from the sum deduct four-tenths of the oxygen. 
Multiply the remainder by 1.52. The product is the quantity of air at 62° F. 
in cubic feet. 

Formula :— A = 1.52 (C + 3 H — .40) (1) 



12 



To find the weight of the air chemically consumed, divide the volume 
found as above by 13.14 ; the quotient is the weight of the air in pounds. 

Rule 2. To find the total weight of the gaseous products of the complete 
combustion of one poujid of a fuel, multiply the percentage of constitutent 
carbon in the fuel by 0.126, and that of hydrogen by 0.358. The sum of 
these products is the total weight of the gases in pounds. 

Formula:— W = 0.126 C + 0.358 H (2) 

Rule 3. To find the total volume, at 62° F. , of the gaseous products of 
the complete combustion of one pound of fuel , multiply the constituent percent- 
age of carbon in the fuel by 1.52, and that of hydrogen by 5.52. The sum 
of these products is the total volume in cubic feet. 

Formula :— V = 1.52 C + 5.52 H (3) 

The corresponding volume of the gases at other temperatures is given 
by the formula — 

V'=V^' (4) 

In which V is the volume at 62° F., t' is the other temperature and V the 
corresponding volume. That is to say, the volume at any other temperature 
f is found by multiplying the volume at 62° by (f plus 461), and dividing 
by 523. 

Rule 4. To fiiid approximately the total heating power of o?ie pound of 
a com,bustible , of which the percentages of the constituent carbon and hydrogen 
are given. To the carbon add 4.28 times the hydrogen, and multiply the 
sum by 145. The product is the heating power in British units. 

Formula :— h = 145 (C J- 4.28 H) (5) 

Rule 5. To find the total evaporative power, at 212° T., of one pound 
of combustible , of which the percentages of the constituent carbon and hydro- 
gen are given. To the carbon add 4.28 times the hydrogen, and multiply 
the sum by 0.13 when the water is supplied at 62° F., or by 0.15 when the 
water is supplied at 212° F. The product is the total evaporative power of 
one pound of the combustible, in pounds of water evaporated at 212° F. 

Formula :— (Water supplied at 212°), E = 0.15 (C + 4.28 H) (6) 

Usually considerably more air is admitted than is actually necessary for 
perfect combustion, this amount being stated by various authorities at from 
50 to 100 per cent, in excess of the chemical requirements. It also appears 
from some experiments made some time ago in England, that the proportion 
of surplus air needed decreases as the rate of combustion and temperature 
of the furnace increases. 

As the furnace of the Heine Boiler is designed so as to obtain a high 
furnace temperature, and the grate area so proportioned as to get a fairly 
high rate of combustion, the fuel is burned with a minimum of air, and here 

13 



I 



the economy is increased by reason of the heat saved which would otherwise 
go to raising the temperature of surplus air. Analyses of the flue gases from 
Heine Boilers have often shown a fraction of a per cent, of free oxygen and 
at the same time showing a minimum of carbon monoxide gas. 

For average American coals the following table gives good approximate 
results for the temperature and volume of gases, in the furnace, under the 
varying conditions of practice. In applying it the actual quantities of air 
used should be measured by an anemometer: 

Table No. lo. 

Temperature of Combustion and Volumes of Products. 

J. M. w. 






Temperature op 


Su 


pply of Air in lbs. per lb. of Fuel. 








Gas, 


12 lbs. 


18 lbs. 


24 lbs. 


Fahrenheit. 










Volume of Air < 


3r Gases in Cubic Feet at Each Temperature. 


32 


150 


225 


300 


68 


161 


241 


322 


104 


172 


258 


344 


212 


205 


307 


409 


392 


259 


389 


519 


672 


314 


471 


628 


752 


369 


553 


738 


1112 


479 


718 


957 


1472 


588 


882 


1176 


1832 


697 


1046 


1395 


2500 


906 


1359 


1812 


3275 


1136 


1704 




4640 


1551 








Heine Boiler Water Legs in Process 
of Construction. 



14 




o 






U 






bfl 






c 




y) 






Uh 


k. 




<1) 


D 










o 


c« 




OQ 


H-. 






D 




cu 


C 




c 


OS 


— 




c 


oi 


M-i 

o 




z 

[Tl 


• 


■? 


0:^ 


X 



j:: C CO 

+^ ^ 00 



£ 
o 
o 

'o 
OQ 



C/5 
C 

G 
O 

U 



COAL. 

Coal is by far the most important fuel in use. The cases where wood 
is used are exceptional, and becoming more so as population increases and 
timber becomes scarce and more in demand for structural purposes. Very- 
favorable local conditions are necessary before fuel oils or gases can compete 
with coal. It is interesting to trace the gradual increase in the demand for 
coal. 

In, England coal was first used in the twelfth century, and was then and 
long after known as sea-coal to distinguish it from char-coal. This name 
was given it from the fact that it was first believed to be a marine product, 
being gathered among the seaweed and other wreckage cast up by the waves 
on Northumbrian beaches. Later on the name was given to coal brought 
from over the sea. 

About the year 1200 the English began to dig coal systematically for the 
use of their smiths and lime burners. In 1281 the entire coal trade of New- 
castle on Tyne amounted to about $500 a year. In 1307 the brewers, 
dyers, etc., of London had so generally adopted coal in their works that a 
commission to abate the smoke nuisance was instituted. Its powers and 
methods were far less restricted than those of similar commissions now being 
very generally instituted in American cities. 

In dwellings coal was not used till the middle of the fourteenth century, 
since chimneys had first to be invented, but early in the fifteenth century we 
find Falstaff sitting '*at the round table, by a sea-coal fire." 

In 1577 a writer says in regard to the coal mines, "Theyr greatest trade 
beginneth now to grow from the forge into the kitchin and hall." When 
the Stuarts came to the English throne they made the use of coal fashiona- 
ble, so that in 1612 a writer states that it had become ''the generale fuell of 
this Britaine Island." ''Coking" coal (originally "cooking" it) came in 
vogue about 1640, and in 1656 an English knight anticipated the St. Louis 
Smoke Committee of 1892 in attempting to introduce coke for domestic pur- 
poses. But as late as 1686 sea-coal and pit-coal were considered "not use- 
ful to metals," and char-coal still held the field in smelting furnaces. But 
during the next fifty years, lead, tin and finally iron furnaces began to use 
coal. Soon after the gradual development of steam power began. In 1800 
the total production of coal in Great Britain had reached ten million tons. In 
1891 the records show 185,479,126 tons of which about 1-6 was exported, 
1-6 was for domestic use, and the other 2-3 was consumed in the arts and 
manufactures. 

In the United States up to 1860 the use of wood as fuel, for dwellings, 
for factories, steamboats and locomotives was quite general, except in the 
anthracite coal districts. But since then the use of bituminous coal has in- 
creased rapidly and steadily for all purposes. 

The following table gives the amounts of coal produced during the last 
eighteen years : 

16 



TABLE NO. 11. 

Amount of Coal, in Tons of 2000 lbs., Mined in the United States 

Since 1880. 



if EAR. 


ANTHRACITE. 


ALL OTHERS. 


TOTAL. 




1880 


26,249,711 


47,398,286 


73,647,997 




1881 


31,920,018 


56,327,412 


88,247,430 




1882 


32,614,507 


65,588,241 


98,202,748 




1883 


35,418,353 


72,663,765 


108,082,118 




1884 


36,558,478 


73,836,730 


110,395,208 




1885 


38,335,973 


74,273,838 


112,609,811 




1886 


39,035,446 


75,624,846 


114,66^,292 




1887 


42,088,196 


88,887,109 


130,975,305 




1888 


46,619,564 


98,850,642 


145,470,206 




1889 


39,656,635 


98,460,065 


138,116,702 




1890 


46,468,640 


109,604,971 


156,073,611 




1891 


50,665,431 


118,878,517 


169,543,948 




1892 


49,735,744 


122,033,611 


171,769,355 




1893 


47,354,563 


128,823,364 


176,177,927 




1894 


52,010,433 


117,950,348 


169,960,781 




1895 


51,785,122 


135,118,193 


186,903,315 




1896 


48,010,616 


137,640,276 


185,650,892 




1897 


46,814,076 


147,789,904 


194,603,980 





In the United States a long ton of coal is 2240 lbs. 
In the United States a short ton of coal is 2000 lbs. 
In Illinois, Kentucky and Missouri 80 lbs. of bituminous coal make a 
bushel. 

In Pennsylvania, 76 lbs. of bituminous coal make a bushel. 

In Indiana 70 lbs. of bituminous coal make a bushel. 

A cubic foot of solid anthracite coal weighs 93.5 lbs. 

Forty-two cubic feet of prepared anthracite coal weigh one long ton. 



Coal may be arranged in five classes : 

1st. Anthracite, or blind coal, consisting almost entirely of free carbon. 

Dry bituminous coal, having from 70 to 80 per cent, of carbon. 

Bituminous caking coal, having from 50 to 60 per cent, of carbon. 
Long flaming or cannel coal, having from 70 to 85 per cent, of 



Lignite, or brown coal, containing from 56 to 76 per cent, of 



2d. 

3d. 

4th. 
carbon. 

5th. 
carbon. 

In the United States the anthracites are found mainly in the eastern 
portion of the Allegheny Mountains and the Rocky Mountains of Colorado ; 
the dry bituminous coals in Maryland and Virginia ; the caking coals in the 
great Mississippi Valley ; the cannel coals in Pennsylvania, Indiana and 
Missouri ; the lignites in Colorado, Texas and Washington. The second and 
third classes furnish the best steam coal. 

The following table, compiled from a number of analyses of coals 
bought in the open market may prove of value, bearing in mind what we 
said of the difference between theoretical and practical heating powers. 
(See p. 15.) 

We will add what a noted German engineer, Mr. F. Bode, says on this 
point: " The calculation of the calorific value of a given coal from an elcTnentary 
analysis is unreliable^ a?id often gives results greatly at variance with an 
actual calorinietric test. ' ' 

17 



TABLE NO. 12. 

Table of American Coals. 

Heating and Evaporative Power. 



COAL. 

Name or Locality. 



Ha 



_ XI E a 

03— o 2 
'-' C >- J^ 






COAL. 

Name or Locality. 



CQ 



V) . 



01 



Ji > « C 



ARKANSAS. 

Coal Hill, Johnson Co 

Huntington Co 

Huntington Co 

Huntington Co 

ILLINOIS. 

Big Muddy, Jackson Co .... 
Big Muddy, Jacl^son Co .... 
Big Muddy, Jaci<son Co .... 
Big Muddy, Jacl^son Co .... 

Carterville 

Carterviile 

Carterville 

Carterville 

Carterville 

Carterville 

Carterville 

Colchester 

Colchester Slack 

Collinsville, Madison Co.... 

Dumferline Slack 

Duquoin, Jupiter 

Glen Carbon 

Glen Carbon 

Gillespie, Macoupin Co 

Girard, Macoupin Co 

Girard, Macoupin Co 

Heitz Bluff, St. Clair Co.... 
Heitz Bluff, St. Clair Co.... 

Hurricane 

Muddy Valley 

Oakland, St. Clair Co 

Paradise 

St. Bernard 

St. Clair 

St. Clair 

St. Clair 

St. John, Perry Co 

St. John, Perry Co 

Streator, LaSalle Co 

Trenton, Clinton Co 

Trenton, Clinton Co.... 

Turkey Hill .' 

Turkey Hill 

Vulcan 

Vulcan 

INDIANA. 
Block 

INDIAN TERRITORY 

Atoka 

Choctaw Nation 

McAllister 

McAllister 



11812 


12.22 


11757 


12.16 


11906 


12.32 


12537 


12.97 


11466 


11.87 


11529 


11.93 


11781 


12.19 


11200 


11.60 


11481 


11.89 


12383 


12.71 


11498 


11.90 


11407 


11.81 


11337 


11.73 


11700 


12.12 


11400 


11.80 


9848 


10.19 


9035 


9.35 


10143 


10.50 


9401 


9.73 


10710 


11.08 


9675 


10.01 


9804 


10.14 


9739 


10.09 


9954 


10.30 


10269 


10.63 


10332 


10.69 


10576 


10.95 


11868 


12.28 


11718 


12.14 


10395 


10.76 


11340 


11.73 


10080 


10.44 


9261 


9.58 


10294 


10.65 


10647 


11.02 


9765 


10.10 


9828 


10.18 


11403 


11.80 


10584 


10.96 


11245 


11.63 


11255 


11.64 


11260 


11.65 


9450 


9.78 


10626 


11.00 


10407 


10.77 


11088 


11.47 


12789 


13.23 


13287 


13.75 


12800 


13.25 



IOWA. 

Milwaukee Pea 

Thornburgh 

Muchikinock 

Good Cheer 

KENTUCKY. 

Kanawah 

Kanawah 

MARYLAND. 

George's Creek Cumberland 
George's Creek Cumberland 
George's Creek Cumberland 

MISSOURI. 

Bevier 

Cannel 

Carter 

Elston 

Freeburg 

Henry 

Keene 

K. T 

Lump 

NEW MEXICO. 
Coal 

OHIO. 

Hocking Valley 

Jackson Co 

Jackson Co 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Clearfield 

Pittsburgh 

Pittsburgh Gas 

Pittsburgh Slack 

Reynoldsville 

Wilkesbarre 

Youghiogheny 

Youghiogheny 

Youghiogheny 

Youghiogheny 

Youghiogheny 

Youghiogheny 

Youghiogheny 

Youghiogheny 

Youghiogheny 

Youghiogheny 

Youghiogheny 

Youghiogheny 

Youghiogheny 

Youghiogheny 

Oil (Crude) .... 

Oil (Crude) 



10240 

10690 

11370 

8702 



12689 
13345 



13700 
13400 

12800 



9890 
11832 
10880 
12656 
11436 
10466 
10956 
10448 

9414 



11756 



13309 
12343 
11600 



14000 
13104 
13035 
11739 
12981 
13563 
12936 
12600 
13480 
13287 
12909 
13222 
12278 
13305 
12600 
13ill 
12487 
12600 
13309 
13158 
17268 
16801 



10.60 

11 07 

11.77 

9.01 



13.13 
13.81 



14.18 
13.87 
13.25 



10.24 
12.24 
11.26 
13.82 
11.83 
10.83 
11.34 
10.81 
9.75 



12.17 



13.78. 
12.77 
12.01 



14.4^ 
13.46 
13.49' 
12.35 
13.44 
14.04 
13.3^ 
13.03 
13.95 
13.75 
13.36 
13.6& 
12.71 
13.77 
13.04 
13.47 
12.92 
13.04 
13.77 
13.60 
17.88 
17.39 



Table of American Codls — Continued. 



COAL. 

Name or Locality. 



a. . 

.T3 

c6 



i > ^ c 



COAL. 

Name or Locality. 



TENNESSEE 

Glen Mary, Scott Co... 

Lump 

Lump 

TEXAS. 

Ft. Worth 

Ft. Worth 

VIRGINIA. 

Pocohontas 

Pocohontas 



13167 


1 
13.63 


12600 


13.04 


12215 


12.65 


9450 


9.78 


11803 


12.22 


13363 


13.83 


13029 


13.49 



H 5 



CQ 



CO 

■^ •— *- ** 



2 > « c 



WASHINGTON. 

Carbon Hill ♦ 

Carbon Hill 

Carbon Hill 

WEST VIRGINIA. 

New River 

New River 

New River 

New River 



12316 
12085 
12866 



13374 
12806 
12800 
12962 



12.75 
12.51 
13.32 



13.84 
13.26 
13.25 
13.52 



The average proximate analysis of a few of the commonest coals are given in the fol- 
lowing table : 



Ordinary Illinois 

Best Illinois : 

Pennsylvania Bituminous 
Pennsylvania Anthracite . 
New River, W. Va 



Moisture. 



9.90 

6.4:i 

1.7(1 
2.0( 



Volatile 
Matter. 



33.40 
30.60 
21.80 
6.40 
18.40 



Fixed 
Carbon. 



43.80 
54.60 
60.10 
78.40 
77.60 



Ash. 



12.80 
8.30 
6.40 

13.20 
2.90 



Sulphur. 



3.35 

1.78 

.84 



0.26 




Boiler Plant of the Orleans Street Ry. Co., 

NEW ORLEANS, LA. 

500 H. P. Heine Boilers. 



19 



As foreign results in the work of both boilers and engines are frequently 
brought to our notice by the professional press, it will be convenient to have 
some tables of English, French and other foreign coals, for purposes of com- 
parison, and they are here given : 





o 






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CO 


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1 1 t 






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en 

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1 I t 








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uo 


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[NCLUDED 
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2.79 


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TABLE NO. 14. 

Composition and Heating Power of French Coals. 

D. K. c. 



Coal. 



RONCHAMP. 



No. 1 76.5 

No. 2 68.6 

No. 3 76.2 

No. 4 73.1 

Average 73.6 

Sarrebruck.* 

Dudweiler 71.3 

Altenwald 69.3 

Heinitz 70.3 

Friedrichsthal 67 

Louisenthal 64.7 

Sulzbach 73.3 

Von der Heyt 70.6 

BLANZY 

Montceau 66.1 

Anthracitic | 67.0 

Creuzot, Anthracite --.-i 87.4 



Composition. 



u 



Per 
Cent. 



>> 

X 



Per 
Cent. 

4.4 
4.0 
4.1 
3.8 
4.1 

4.1 
4.3 
4.3 
4.2 
3.9 
4.6 
4.5 

4.4 
3.6 

3.5 



Per 
Cent. 

3.0 

4.7 
5.9 
4.9 
4.6 

9.2 
9.9 
n.5 
13 8 
15.0 
9.6 
11.2 

13.2 
5.9 
3.2 



Per 
Cent. 

1.1 
1.1 
1.0 
1.0 
1.5 

0.5 
0.5 
0.5 
0.5 
0.5 
0.5 
0.5 

0.5 
0.5 
0.5 



Per 

Cent. 



0.8 



1.8 
2.5 
1.8 
1.0 
3.6 
1.6 
2.7 

10.3 

21.0 

3.6 



Per 
Cent. 

15.0 
2C.8 
12.8 
16.2 
16.2 

13.1 
13.5 
11.6 
12.7 
12.3 
]0.4 
10.5 

5.0 
2.0 
1.8 



u 



Per 
Cent. 

61.7 
55.6 
62.3 
62.4 
60.5 

53.5 
52.9 
53.7 
50.2 
47.3 



Per 
Cent. 

23.3 
23.6 
24.9 
21.4 
23.3 

33.4 
33.6 
34.7 
37.1 
40.4 



Heating 
Power of 1 
lb. OF Coal. 



B.T. u. 

14357 
13743 
14085 
13995 
14045 

13833 
13320 
13548 
13647 
12665 
13608 
13865 

12720 
12825 
16108 



u 



B.T. U. 

13820 
12430 
13590 
12960 
13220 

12880 
12720 
12860 
12440 
11800 
13480 
13030 

12390 
11950 
14850 



o 






Pounds 

of 
Water. 
14.86 
14.23 
14.59 
14.49 
14.54 

14.32 
13.79 
14.03 
14.13 
13.11 
14.09 
14.36 

13.17 
13.28 
16.68 



Combustion of Coal. 

"When coal is exposed to heat in a furnace, a portion of the carbon and 
hydrogen, associated in various chemical unions, as hydro-carbons, are vol- 
atilized and passed off. At the lowest temperature, naphthaline, resins, and 
fluids with high boiling points are disengaged ; next, at a higher tempera- 
ture, volatile fluids are disengaged ; and still higher, olefiant gas, followed by 
common gas, light carburetted hydrogen, which continues to be given off 
after the coal has reached a low red heat. What remains after the distilla- 
tory process is over, is coke, which is the fixed or solid carbon of coal, with 
earthy matter, the ash of the coal. 

Taking the fixed carbon, or coke remaining. in the furnace after the vol- 
atile elements are distilled off, for round numbers at 60 per cent., the follow- 
ing is an approximate summary of the condition of the elements of average 
coal, after having been decomposed, and prior to entering into combustion : 
100 POUNDS OF AVERAGE COAL IN THE FURNACE. 



Composition. 
fFixed 



Lbs. 



.60 



Carbon ^ Volatilized 20 

Hydrogen — 5 

Sulphur 1 1-4 

Oxygen 8 

Nitrogen 1 1-5 

Ash 4 



Decomposition. Lbs. 

Fixed Carbon 60 

Hydrocarbons 24 

Sulphur 1 1-4 

Water or Steam 9 

Nitrogen 1 1-5 

Ash—- 4 



100 



About 100 



showing a total useful combustible of 86i per cent, of which 26J per cent, 
is volatilized. While the decomposition proceeds, combustion proceeds, and 
the 26i per cent, of volatilized portions, and the 60 per cent, of fixed car- 
bon, successively, are burned. 

* These are now German Coals. 



22 



The sulphur and a portion of the nitrogen are disengaged in combina- 
tion with hydrogen, as sulphuretted hydrogen and ammonia. But these com- 
pounds are small in quantity, and, for the sake of simplicity, they have not 
been indicated in the above synopsis. 

There are three modes of supplying coal to ordinary furnaces by hand 
firing, namely : spreading, alternate, and coking firing. In spreading firing 
the charge of coal is scattered evenly over the whole surface of the grate, 
commencing generally at the bridge, and working forward to the door. In 
alternate firing the charge of coal is laid evenly along half the width of the 
grate at a time, from back to front, each side alternately. In coking firing 
the charge of coal is thrown on to the dead plate and the front part of the 
bars and left there for a time, in order that the mass may become coked 
through, and when that is done the mass is pushed back towards the bridge, 
and another charge is thrown on to the front of the fire in its place. In this 
way the gases are gradually evolved from the coal at the front, while a bright 
fire is maintained at the back. 

It is thought advantageous, in slowly burning furnaces having long flues, 
that the fuel should be slightly moist, and that the ash pits should be sup- 
plied with water, from which steam may be generated by the heat radiated 
downwards from the fire, and passed through the firegrate. The access of 
water to the fuel lessens the "glow fire" or flameless incandescence of the 
fixed carbon on the grate, and increases the quantity of flame by forming 
carbonic oxide and hydrogen gases in its decomposition into its elements, 
oxygen and hydrogen, and the reduction, by the oxygen, of the carbonic 
acid already formed in the furnace. The newly made gases are afterwards 
burned in the flues. The presence of moisture, even in coke, gives rise to 
flame in the flues, and reduces the intensitj^ of the heat in the glow fire. 
The combustion, in fact, is deferred, or distributed ; and it is on this princi- 
ple that moist bituminous coals are most effective in furnaces having long 
flues, as in Cornish boilers. 

That two coals of identical composition may possess very different heat- 
ing powers is evidenced by comparing the bituminous coals of Creuzot and 
Ronchamp, which have the following nearly identical compositions, reckon- 
ing the coal as dry and pure, or free from ash : 

Carbon, Hydrojjen, Oxygen, Heating 

Percent. Percent. Percent. Power. 

Creuzot 88.48 4.41 7.11 17320 

Ronchamp 88.32 4.78 6.89 1(3339 

while there is a difference of six per cent, in the actual heating powers. 
Correspondingly, the Creuzot coal had only 19.6 per cent, of volatile matters, 
while the Ronchamp coal yielded 27 per cent. 

« 

Lignite and Asphalt. 

Brown lignite is sometimes of a woody texture, sometimes earthy. 
Black lignite is either of a woody texture, or it is homogeneous, with a 
resinous fracture. Some lignites, more fully developed, are of a schistose 
character, with pyrites in their composition. The coke produced from 
various lignites is either pulverulent, like that of anthracite, or it retains the 
forms of the original fibres.. Lignite is less dense than coal. 

.23 



Asphalt, like lignite, has a large proportion of hydrogen. It has less 
than 9 per cent, of oxygen and nitrogen, and thus leaves 8:^ per cent, of 
free hydrogen, and it accordingly yields a porous coke. 

The average composition of perfect lignite and of asphalt may be taken 
in whole numbers as follows : 

Ligfnite. Asphalt. 

Carbon 69 per cent. 79 per cent. 

Hydrogen — 5 " 9 " 

Oxygen and Nitrogen 20 " 9 

Ash 6 " 3 " 

100 100 

Coke, by laboratory analysis 47 ** 9 *' 

The lignites are distinguished from coal by the large proportion of oxygen 
in their composition — from 13 to 29 per cent. 

The heating powers of lignite and asphalt are respectively measured 
by 13,108 units, and 17,040 units. 

WOOD. 

Wood, as a combustible, is divisible into two classes : 1st. The hard, 
compact, and comparatively heavy woods, as oak, beech, elm, ash ; 2d. The 
light-colored, soft, and comparatively light woods, as pine, birch, poplar. 

In the forests of Central Europe, wood cut down in winter holds, at the 
end of the following summer, more than 40 per cent, of water. Wood kept 
for several years in a dry place retains from 15 to 20 per cent, of water. 
Wood which has been thoroughly desiccated will, when exposed to air under 
ordinary circumstances, absorb 5 per cent of water in the first three days; 
and will continue to absorb it until it reaches from 14 to 16 per cent., as a 
normal standard. The amount fluctuates above and below this standard, 
according to the state of the atmosphere. Ordinary firewood contains, by 
analysis, from 27 to 80 per cent, of hygrometric moisture. 

The woods of various trees are nearly identical in chemical composition^ 
which is practically as follows, showing the composition of perfectly dr> 
wood, and of ordinary firewood holding hygroscopic moisture : 

TABLE NO. 15. 

Desiccated Wood. Ordinary Firewood. 

Carbon 50 per cent 37.5 per cent. 

Hydrogen 6 per cent 4.5 percent. 

Oxygen ^ 41 per cent 30.75 per cent. 

Nitrogen 1 per cent 0.75 per cent. 

Ash 2 per cent 1.5 percent. 

100 per cent. 75.0 per cent. 

Hygrometric water 25.0 per cent. 

100.0 

The quantity of-intersticial space in a closely packed pile of wood, con- 
sisting of round uncloven stems, is 30 per cent, of the gross bulk ; for cloven 
stems, the intersticial space amounts to from 40 to 50 per cent. 

English oak — a hard wood — weighs 58 lbs. per solid cubic foot ; its 
specific gravity is .93. Yellow pine — a soft wood— weighs 41 lbs. per solid 
cubic foot ; its specific gravity is .66. 

24 




v 



A cord of pine wood — that is, of pine wood cut up and piled — in the 
United States, measures 4 feet by 4 feet by 8 feet, and has a volume of 128 
cubic feet. Its weight in ordinary condition averages 2700 lbs.; or 21 lbs. 
per cubic foot. 

The quantity of air chemically consumed in the complete combustion of 
one pound of perfectly dry wood, by rule 1, page 13, is 80 cubic feet at 62"^ 
F., or 6.09 lbs. of air. The quantity of burnt gases for 1 lb. of perfectly 
dry wood are 

TABLE No. 16. 

By Weight. By Volume. 

Lbs. Per cent. Cu. ft. at 62^F. Per cent. 

Carbonic acid ~.^^- 1.83 21.7 15.75 14.4 

Steam 0.54 6.4 11.40 10.4 

Nitrogen 6.08 ' 71.9 82.01 75.2 

Totals - 8.45 100.0 109.16 100.0 

showing that there are 8 J lbs., or 109 cubic feet, at 62° F., of burnt gases 
per pound of wood, 13 cubic feet to the pound. 

The total heat of combustion of perfectly dry wood, by rule 4, page 14, 
J 10974 units, which is 75 per cent, of that of coal, and is equivalent, by 
rule 5, to the evaporation of 11.36 lbs. of water from and at 212° F. 

When the wood holds 25 per cent, of water, there is only 75 per cent, 
or three-quarter pound of wood substance in one pound ; and the total heat 
of combustion is 75 per cent, of 10974 units, or 8230 units, which is only 
56J per cent, of that of average coal. Similarly, the equivalent evaporative 
power is reduced to 8.52 lbs. of water from and at 212°, of which the equiva- 
lent of a quarter of a pound is appropriated to the vaporizing of the con- 
tained moisture — that is to say, for evaporating one-quarter pound of water, 
supplied at 62° F., the quantity of heat is 1116°-^4=279 units, and the net 
available heat for service is 8230 — 279=7951 units per pound of fuel holding 
25 per cent of water.* 

In order to obtain the maximum heating power from wood as fuel, it is 
the practice, in some works on the continent of Europe, — as glass works and 
porcelain works, — where intensity of heat is required, to dry the wood fuel 
thoroughly, even using stoves for the purpose, before using it." 

D. K. C. 

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers in their Rules for Boiler 
Tests allow 1 lb. of wood = 0.4 lb. of coal ; or 2J lbs. of wood = 1 lb. of 
coal. Other authorities estimate 2J lbs. of dry wood = 1 lb. of good coal. 
One pound of wood is practically equivalent to one pound of any other kind 
of wood equally dry. 

TABLE NO. 17. 

1 cord of hickory or hard maple weighs 4500 lbs. and = 2000 lbs. coal. 

1 cord of white oak weighs • 3850 lbs. and = 1711 lbs. coal. 

1 cord of beech, red oak, or black oak weighs 3250 lbs. and = 1145 lbs. coal. 

1 cord of poplar, chestnut, or elm weighs 2350 lbs. and = 1044 lbs. coal. 

1 cord of average pine weighs 2000 lbs. and = 890 lbs. coal. 

* This figure may be used for a close approximation in comparing a certain kind of 
wood to a known coal. Suppose the calculated heat in a pound of the coal to be 13025 
B. T. U., and an actual boiler test showed an evaporation of seven poundsof water per pound 
of coal. Then 13025:7951::7:4.28, i. e., you may expect to evaporate about 4.28 lbs. of 
water per pound of the wood in the same boiler. 

26 



In substituting any kind of wood for coal under a boiler, the dimensions 
of the furnace must be increased, preferably mainly in the height, so that 
by carrying a greater depth of fuel nearly as much by weight may be present 
in the furnace as was usual or necessary with the coal. 



" BAGASSE." 

Bagasse is the fibrous portion of the cane left after the juice has been 
extracted from it in the mill. There is a great difference in the chemical 
composition of bagasse ; that from tropical canes shows a greater proportion 
of combustibles. 

Prof. L. A. Becnel, in an address to the Louisana Sugar Chemists Asso- 
ciation, said: ''The judicious use of bagasse as fuel is perhaps one of the 
most important questions with which we have to deal, and which has a direct 
bearing on the reduction of cost of manufacture." He then quotes from Mr. 
N. Lubbock that 4.83 lbs. of bagasse from a double mill making 72 per cent 
extraction, or 5.98 lbs. of single mill bagasse of 66 per cent extraction, will 
produce about as much heat as one pound of Scotch coal. 

Mr. L. Metesser, as the result of a number of tests in Cuba and Mexico, 
reports from 4.25 to 5 lbs. of 70 per cent bagasse as equal to one pound of 
good coal. 

Tropical cane and the bagasse remaining after mill extraction are of 
about the following composition : 

Cane. 66% Bagasse. 70% Bagasse. 72% Bagasse. 

Woody Fibre 12.5 37 40 45 

Water 73.4 53 50 46 

Combustible Salts ♦ 14.1 10 TO 9 

100 lbs. 100 lbs. 100 lbs. 100 lbs. " 

Taking these figures as a basis, and remembering that the water in the 
bagasse has to be first brought up from an average temperature of say 86° F., 
to steam under atmospheric pressure, requiring 1060 H. U., and that this 
steam has to be raised to the average stack temperature say 300° higher, and 
taking the specific heat of gaseous steam at 0.475, which would give say 142 
H. U. more, therefore a total of 1200 H. U. per pound of water. Mr. Lub- 
bock found 51 per cent of carbon in the woody fibre, and 42.1 per cent of car- 
bon in the combustible salts. Since a pound of carbon in perfect combustion 
will liberate 14500 H. U., we will have 'h\\ 100 lbs. of ^^^ per cent bagasse, 
334660 H. U., from which we must deduct 63600 H. U. as absorbed by the 
water, leaving 271060 H. U. available as fi^el. In like manner, we have in the 
72 per cent bagasse 387730 H. U.,from which we must deduct 55200 absorbed 
by the water, leaving 332530 H. U. available. 

In comparing this with good Youghiogheny coal of say 13000 H. U., and 
good Scotch coal of 14800 H. U. calorific value, we find the fuel value of the 
66 per cent bagasse to be : 

5 lbs. bagasse equals one pound Youghiogheny coal, 
5.52 " " " " " Scotch coal, 

and +hat of the 72 per cent bagasse to be 

3.85 lbs. bagasse equals one pound Youghiogheny coal, 
4.35 " " " " " Scotch coal. 

27 



It will probably require considerably more of the Louisiana bagasse than 
of the tropical bagasse, since it has about 25 per cent less woody fibre than 
the latter. 

Mr. Becnel, estimates with 75 per cent Louisiana bagasse as a basis, that 
** To manufacture one ton of cane into sugar and molasses, it will take from 
145 to 190 lbs. additional coal by the open evaporation process ; from 85 to 
112 lbs. additional coal with a double effect," and with triple effect it appears 
the bagasse alone would do the work, and have enough steam to spare to 
run engines, grind cane, etc. '' If this has not yet been accomplished in 
Louisiana, may it not be due more to imperfect boiler and evaporating plants 
than to a deficiency in heat producing properties of .the bagasse?" 

The above of course can only be taken as approximately correct. The 
results will vary greatly according to the kind of boilers and furnaces used. 
From the nature of this fuel, it follows that it should be fed continuously into 
a very hot fire brick chamber, and that plenty of room must be left in the 
furnace and boiler setting to accommodate the large volume of gas and steam 
produced by the bagasse. 




Pawtucket Electric Co. 

PAWTUCKET, R. I. 

Now contains 1830 H. P. of Heine Boilers. 



28 



The higher the per cent of extraction the more fuel value the bagasse 
will have, and as it will necessarily contain less moisture, the larger pro- 
portion of this enhanced fuel value becomes available in the boiler furnace. 
The improvement in boiler plants will thus naturally go hand in hand with 
improved methods of extraction. 

TAN AND STRAW. 
Tan. 

**Tan, or oak bark, after having been used in the process of tanning, is 
burned as fuel. The spent tan consists of the fibrous portion of the bark. 
According to M. Peclet, five parts of oak bark produce four parts of dry tan ; 
and the heating power of perfectly dry tan, containing 15 per cent of ash, is 
6100 English units, while that of tan in an ordinary state of dryness, con- 
taining 30 per cent of water, is only 4284 English units. The weight of 
water evaporated at 212° by one pound of tan, equivalent to these heating 
powers, is as follows : 

With 30% of 
Perfectly Dry. Moisture. 

Water supplied at 62° 5.46 lbs. 3.84 lbs. 

Water supplied at 212° 6.31 lbs. 4.44 lbs. 

(See note under Wood.) 

Straw. 

The composition of straw, in its ordinary air-dried condition, is given by 
Mr. John Head, as follows : 

TABLE No. 18. 

Wheat Straw, Barley Straw, Mean, 

per cent. per cent. per cent. 

Carbon 35.86 36.27 36. 

Hydrogen 5.01 5.07 5. 

Oxygen 37.68 38.26 38. 

Nitrogen .45 .40 .425 

Ash 5.00 4.50 4.75 

Water 16.00 15.50 15.75 

100.00 100.00 100.00 

The weight of pressed straw is from 6 lbs. to 8 lbs. per cubic foot. 

Heat of Combustion of Straw. 

For straw of mean composition, the total heat generated is, by rule 4, 
equal to 145 [36 + (4.28X5)] == 8323 units of heat, or the evaporation of 
7.46 lbs. of water from and at 212° F. Deducting the heat absorbed in 
evaporating the constituent water, 15f per cent, or .16 lb. , equal to 11 16 X .16= 
179 units, the available heat is 8323 — 179 = 8144 units, equivalent to the 
evaporation of 7.30 lbs. of water from and at 212°. 

(See note under Wood.) 

LIQUID FUELS. 

Petroleum is a^ hydrocarbon liquid which is found in abundance in 
America and Europe. According to the analysis of M. Sainte-Claire Deville, 
the composition of fifteen petroleums from different sources was found to be 
practically the same. The average specific gravity was .870. The extreme 
and the average elementary compositions were as follows : 

29 



TABLE NO. 19. 

Chemical Composition of Petroleum. 

Carbon 82.0 to 87.1 per cent. Average, 84.7 per cent. 

Hydrogen 11.2 to 14.8 per cent. Average, 13.1 per cent. 

Oxygen 0.5 to 5.7 per cent. Average, 2.2 per cent. 

100.0 

The total heating and evaporative powers of one pound of petroleum 
having this average composition are, by rules 4 and 5, as follows : 

Total heating power = 145 [84.7 -f- (4.28X13.1)] = 20411 units. 

Evaporative power : evaporating at 212°, water supplied at 62°= 18.29 lbs. 
Evaporative power : evaporating at 212°, water supplied at 212° = 21.13 lbs. 

Petroleum oils are obtained in great variety by distillation from petroleum. 
They are compounds of carbon and hydrogen, ranging from Cio H24 to 
C32 H64 ; or, in weight ; 

TABLE No. 20. 

Chemical Composition of Petroleum Oils. 

Mean. 

P r 71.42 Carbon 1 ./ 73.77 Carbon 72.60 

rrom^ 28.58 Hydrogen/ ^° \ 26.23 Hydrogen 27.40 

100.00 100.00 100.00 

The specific gravity ranges from .628 to .792. The boiling point ranges 
from 86° to 495° F. The total heating power ranges from 28087 to 26975 
units of heat ; equivalent to the evaporation, at 212°, of from 25.17 to 24.17 
lbs. of water supplied at 62°, or from 29.08 lbs. to 27.92 lbs. of water supplied 
at 212°. 

D. K. C. 

Oil as a Fuel. 

A few years ago the question of using oil as a steam fuel was quite 
seriously considered, but experience has shown, that at the prevailing 
prices, it is more economical, in most parts of the country, to use some 
other fuel. Oil, however, has many advantages over the more bulky 
fuels, as by the mere turning of a valve fire can be started instantaneously, 
and may be increased or decreased at once. Furthermore, the heat pro- 
duced by oil is more uniform than that generatea with coal or wood, and 
as there is no necessity for opening the furnace doors the detrimental action 
of quantities of cold air impinging against the boiler is avoided. With its 
use there is a great economy in the labor of attendance, and there is no 
coal to be brought in or ashes to be carried out. The storage space is 
small so that a quantity sufficient for a long period of time can be kept 
without serious inconvenience. Combustion being practically complete no 
soot is deposited on the heating surfaces of the boiler so that the transmission 
of heat is always at a maximum. 

The use of oil fuel on locomotives has been tried in this country as well 
as abroad. The cost of fuel however has precluded its continued use although 
its superior advantages are fully appreciated. 



30 



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In November, 1894, the Baldwin Locomotive Works, of Philadelphia, 
equipped an engine for burning fuel oil and obtained the results stated 
below: 

TESTS OF OIL FULL ON LOCOMOTIVE. 



DATE, 1894. 



Weight of train, approximate, lbs 

Number of cars 

Length of run, miles 



Time of run 

Running time 

Average steam pressure, lbs 

Oil consumption, total lbs .... 

Total gallons 



Per hour 

Per square foot of grate 

Per square foot of grate per hour 

Per square foot of heating surface 

Per square foot of heating surface per hour. 

Water evaporated: total lbs 

Total from and at 212'' F 

Per hour 

Per hour from and at 212® F 

Per lb. of oil 

Per lb. of oil from and at 212^ F.* 

Per square foot of heating surface 

Per square foot of heating surface per hour. 

Per square foot of heating surface per hour 

from and at 212' F 



No. I. 
November 13. 



1,308,160 
25 and 20 

89.7 

h. m. s. 

6 27 00 

5 14 48 

6,637 

905 

lbs. 

1,003.2 

237 

38 

3 

0.49 
70,933 
85,622 
10,998 
13,280 
10.69 
12.90 
33.47 
5 19 



3 
13 



No. 2. 
November 



1,216,120 

30 

54.9 

h. m. s. 

2 56 41 

2 23 26 

171 
3,200.7 

lbs! 
1,086.9 
114.32 

38.82 



34,151.7 
41,465.1 

14,082.2 
10.67 
12.95 
16.12 

5.48 



6.64 



No. 3. 
November 25. 



1,480,640 

26 

52.3 

h. m. s. 

3 20 

2 48 9 

170 
3,703 

Ibsy" 

1,110.9 
132.25 
39.68 



39,169.2 
46,291.6 

13,887.5 

10.58 

12.50 

18.48 

5.54 



6.55 



*Without deducting the steam consumed for vaporizing the oil, or the entrainment. 



The most notable installation of steam boilers using oil as a fuel was at 
the World's Fair in Chicago in 1893. Cost, however was not the determin- 
ing factor, but the cleanliness of the fuel and the absence of all dirt and the 
convenience decided its adoption. At the Mid-Winter Fair in San Francisco 
in 1894, oil was the fuel used for the same reasons as in the case of the 
Chicago Exposition. At both places Heine Boilers were used, and a series 
of tests showed that an evaporation of from 14.5 to 15 lbs. of water from and 
at 212 deg. per lb. of oil is about the average. These results were verified 
by some tests made in 1895 at the plant of the Chicago Edison Co. with 
Heine Boilers, but here as in many other cases, it was not economy to 
continue the use of this ideal fuel. 

The results of certain tests made by the Edison Light and Power Com- 
pany, of San Francisco, Cal., were as follows: 

Evaporation with California oil '. 13.1 pounds to 1 

" Peru oil 12.1 " to 1 

•' White Ash coal 6.68 " to 1 

The California oil used weighed 320 pounds to the barrel. The Peru 
oil used weighed 294 pounds to the barrel. 

1 pound of California oil = 1.96 pounds of coai. 
1 pound of Peru oil = 1.81 pounds of coal. 

•^ •> 



The theoretical evaporation of fuel oil is about 20.5 lbs. of water per lb. 
of oil, and a gallon weighs about 6.9 lbs. 

In order to properly burn fuel oil it must first be vaporized or atomized. 
This is usually done by spraying the oil into the furnace by means of a steam 
jet, where it should be allowed to completely burn before coming in contact 
with the cooler surfaces of the boiler. When burning properly the flame 
will be almost colorless and if any yellow flame appears the combustion is 
not perfect. 




Boiler Room of the Electric Storage Battery Co., 

PHILADELPHIA, PA., 

Contains 450 H. P. of Heine Boilers. 



FUEL GAS. 

Gaseous Fuel has so many apparent practical advantages over any other 
form of fuel, that it may be properly regarded as the ideal fuel. Near Pitts- 
burgh, and in some favored districts of Indiana, Natural Gas has been found 
in such quantities that — for some years at least — immense manufacturing in- 
dustries have been based on it. Manufacturers who have once realized its 
advantages are loth to surrender them and would gladly welcome some kind 
of artificial gas to take its place — if this can be made cheap enough to com- 
pete with the local coal. Inventors have been prolific of processes and de- 
vices to fill this demand. 

As there are certain fixed and well defined conditions on which the fuel 
value of such gases depends, we give below extracts from papers on the 
subject by well known experts, which will enable the careful engineer to es- 
timate in each particular case pretty closely whether gas may be economi- 
cally substituted for coal. 

33 



Mr. Emerson McMillin^ in October, 1887, made an exhaustive investi- 
gation of the subject of fuel gas from which we extract the following : 

**The relative calorific value of the various gases now in use for heat- 
ing and for illumination have been frequently published, yet, in the discus- 
sion of this subject we cannot well avoid a reproduction of some of the 
figures. 

** Notwithstanding the fact that tables of this character have been so 
often published, we are all more or less confused occasionally by seeing 
statements made that make the comparison totally different from our pre- 
conceived ideas as to their relative calorific values. 

'* This confusion occurs from the fact that at one time we see the com- 
parison of the gases made by weight, and at another time the comparison is 
made by volume. We present here the comparison made both by weight 
and by volume, and shall use natural gas as the unit of value in both com- 
parisons : 

TABLE No. 21. 

Relative Values. 

By Weight. By Volume. 

Natural gas 1,000 1,000 

Coal gas 949 666 

Water gas 292 292 

Producer gas 76.5 130 

** The water gas rated in the above table — as you will understand — is 
the gas obtained in the decomposition of steam by incandescent carbon, and 
does not attempt to fix the calorific value of illuminating water gas, which 
may be carbureted so as to exceed, when compared by volume, the value of 
coal gas. 

TABLE No. 22. 

Composition of Gases. 



Natural Gas. 

Hydrogen 2.18 

Marsh gas 92.60 

Carbonic oxide 0.50 

defiant gas 0.31 

Carbonic acid 0.26 

Nitrogen 3.61 

Oxygen 0.34 

Water vapor 0.00 

Sulphydric acid 0.20 



VOLUME. 




Coal Gas. Water Gas. 


Producer Gas 


46.00 45.00 


6.00 


40.00 2.00 


3.00 


6.00 45.00 


23.50 


4.00 0.00 


0.00 


0.50 4.00 


1.50 


1.50 2.00 


65.00 


0.50 0.50 


0.00 


1.50 1.50 


1.00 









100 00 100.00 100.00 100.00 



35 



TABLE NO. 23. 

Composition of Gases. 



Natural Gas. 

Hydrogen 0.268 

Marsh gas 90.383 

Carbonic oxide 0.857 

defiant gas 0.531 

Carbonic acid 0.700 

Nitrogen 6.178 

Oxygen 0.666 

Water vapor 000 

Sulphydric acid 0.417 



WEIGHT. 




Coal Gas. 


Water Gas. 


Producer Gas 


8.21 


5.431 


0.458 


57.20 


1.931 


1.831 


15.02 


76.041 


25.095 


10.01 


0.000 


0.000 


1.97 


10.622 


2.517 


3.75 


3.380 


69.413 


1.43 


0.965 


0.000 


2.41 


1.630 


0.686 



100.000 100.000 100.000 100.000 

*' Some explanations of these analyses are necessary. The natural gas 
is that of Findlay, O. The coal gas is probably an average sample of coal 
gas, purified for use as an illuminant. The water gas is that of a sample of 
gas made for heating, and consequently not purified, hence the larger per 
cent, of CO2 that it contains. 

** Since calculating the tables used in this paper, I am satisfied that the 
sample of water gas is not an average one. The CO is too high, and H is 
too low. Were proper corrections made in this respect, it would increase the 
value in heat units of a pound, but not materially change the value when 
volume is considered, and as that is the way in which gases are sold, the 
tables will not be recalculated. 

*^The producer gas is that of an average sample of the Pennsylvania 
Steel Works, made from anthracite, and is not of so high grade as would be 
that made from soft coal. 

**The natural gas excels, as shown in Table 21, because of the large per 
cent, of marsh gas. In no other form, in the gases mentioned, do we get so 
much hydrogen in a given volume of gas. 

'' It is the large per cent, of hydrogen in the coal gas that makes it so 
nearly equivalent to the natural gas in a given weight, but much of the hy- 
drogen in coal gas being free, makes it fall far short of natural gas in calorific 
value per unit of volume. 

''A further comparison of the value of the several gases named may be 
made by showing the quantity of water that would be evaporated by 1000 
feet of each kind of gas, allowing an excess of 20 per cent, of air, and 
permitting the resultant gases to escape at a temperature of 500 degrees. 
This sort of comparison probably has more practical value than either of the 
others that have been previously given. We will assume that the air for 
combustion is entering at a temperature of 60 degrees. 

TABLE No. 24. 

Water Evaporation. 

Natural Gas. Coal Gas. Water Gas. Producer Gas- 

Cubic feet gas 1000 1000 1000 1000 

Pounds water 893 591 262 115 

36 



*' The theoretical temperature that may be produced by these several 
gases does not differ greatly as between the three first-named. The pro- 
ducer gas falls about 25 per cent, below the others, giving a temperature of 
only 3441° F. 

'' Water gas leads in this respect, with a temperature of 4850°. 

'*A comparison of the resultant products of combustion also shows water 
gas to possess merit over either natural or coal gas, when the combustion of 
equal quantities — say 1000 feet — is considered. An excess of 20 per cent, 
of air is calculated in the following table : 

Table No. 25. 

Resultant Gases of Combustion. 

Natural Coal Water Producer 

Quantity— 1000 ft. Gas. Gas Gas. Gas. 

Weight of gas before combustion, lbs 45.60 32.00 45.60 77.50 

Steam 94.25 69.718 25.104 6.92 

Carbonic acid 119.59 68.586 61.754 36.45 

Sulphuric acid 0.36 

Nitrogen— - 664.96 427.222 170.958 126.57 

Total weight after combustion 879.16 565.526 257.816 169.94 

Pounds oxygen for combination 167.46 107.961 43.149 19.67 

" You will observe, by the following table, that, with the exception of 
producer gas, each kind gives off nearly one pound of waste gases for each 

pound of water evaporated. This quantity includes 20 per cent, excess of air; 

TABLE No. 26. 

Weights of Water Evaporated and Resultant Gases. 

Natural Coal Water Producer 

Gas. Gas. Gas. Gas. 

Weight of water evaporated 893.25 591.000 262.000 115.100 

Weight of gases after combustion ---879. 16 565.526 257.816 169.945 

** The vitiation of the atmosphere per unit of value in water evaporation 
is practically the same in water gas as in natural gas. 

*' However, the excess of oxygen does no harm, and the steam and 
nitrogen can not be regarded as very objectional products. The gas that 
robs the air permanently of the most oxygen, and produces the greatest 
quantity of carbonic acid per unit of work, must be classed as the most 
objectionable from a sanitary standpoint. 

Table No. 27. 

Oxygen Absorbed and Carbonic Acid Produced. 

In Combustion. Natural Coal Water Producer 

Gas. Gas. Gas. Gas. 

Pounds of oxygen absorbed per 100 lbs. water 

evaporated 18.75 18.27 16.47 17.96 

Pounds of CO2 produced per 100 ibs. water 

evaporated 13.40 'n.60 23.57 31.70 

Oxygen absorbed plus CO2 produced 32.15 29.87 40.04 49.66 

**Here, then, it is shown that if pollution by carbonic acid and the 
impoverishment by the absorption of oxygen are equally deleterious to the 
atmosphere, coal gas stands at the head as being the least objectionable." 

Mr. McMillin then goes into an elaborate calculation of a mixture of 
gases, which would combine the good qualities of the three artificial gases 
compared, which he finds to be *Mn per cent., coal gas 20.35, water gas 
32.17, producer gas 47.48." 

37 



After calculating the cost of such gas, he proceeds : 

''Here we may note some features, that to my mind are interesting; 
that is, the cost of various gases per 1,000,000 units of heat which they are 
theoretically capable of producing. 

" In working out these figures I put wages, repairs and incidentals and 
the cost of the ton of good gas coal at ;^2.00, and a ton of hard coal or coke 
at the same price, and the quantities of production as follows: Coal gas 
from soft coal, 10,000 feet ; water gas from hard coal, 40,000 feet; and pro- 
ducer gas, 150,000 feet. 

Table No. 28. 
Cost per 1,000,000 Units of Heat. 

Coal gas 734,976 units, costing 20.00 cents -= 27.21 cents per mill. 

Water gas 322,346 units, costing 10.88 cents = 33.75 cents per mill. 

Producer gas- --117,000 units, costing 2.58 cents == 22.05 cents per mill. 
Our mixture---323,115 units, costing 7.88 cents = 24.39 cents per mill. 

'* Thus it will be seen that after all coal gas costs but 11.6 per cent. 
more per unit of heat than the mixture that we have worked out, while 
water gas, per unit of heat, costs 38.38 per cent, more than the mixed 
product." 

After a discussion of methods of delivery and the various uses for the 
fuel gas, he concludes : 

''The demand for fuel gas, like the demand for electric light, has come 
to stay. It will not down. Scientific investigators, as well as the public, 
insist that there ought to be, and must be, a change in the mode of domestic 
and mdustrial heating. Our present systems are not in keeping with the 
Drogress of the nineteenth century." 

Professor Wm. B. Potter, March, 1892, says: 

'' The convenience and economy attending the use of natural gas in a 
number of localities in this country have led many people to believe that 
fuel gas, made from coal at large central stations, and distributed to factories 
and works, is the fuel of the future which will not only clear all chimneys 
but reduce all fuel bills as well. While it is unqr;estionably true that fuel 
gas is especially adapted for household use and will play an important part 
in the future for such use, it is equally true that as a fuel for raising steam 
it can never compete in the matter of economy with coal directly applied. 
At several establishments where gas is employed for certain industrial hea. 
requirements attempts have been made to use the gas under boilers; at 
first glowing reports were circulated indicating a saving over coal of 20 % 
and even 33Jf^. A little experience has always shown, however, not only 
that such results are not attained, but that the cost of the gaseous fuel is so 
much in excess of coal used directly as to make it necessary to return to the 
latter system. 

A calculation made by Prof. Potter, assuming conditions as found in 
St. Louis, and allowing all uncertain assumptions to favor the gas, show 
that even with gas manufactured on a large scale, coal used directly has an 
advantage of more than 170 per cent, over gas. 



38 



Natural Gas, is variously constituted, and hence the estimates of its 
heating power vary. 

Experiments in Pittsburgh show 1000 cubic feet of natural gas in actual 
efficiency under boilers equal to from 80 to 133 pounds coal. The coal 
varies from 12000 to 13000 B. T. U. per pound.; hence say 1,000,000 to 
1,200,000 B. T. U. per 1000 feet of natural gas. 

A Committee of the Western Society of Engineers of Pittsburgh, report 
1 lb. good coal = 7J cubic feet natural gas. 

When burnt with just enough air its temperature of combustion is 
4200° P. The Westinghouse Brake Co. in Pittsburgh found that with the 
best grade of Youghiogheny coal they could evaporate 10.38 lbs. water, and 
with the same boiler 1.18 feet natural gas evaporated 1 lb. water. They con- 
clude that 1 lb. Youghiogheny coal = 12^ lb. natural gas, or 1000 cubic 
feet natural gas = 81.6 lb. coal. 

The Indiana natural gas gives 1,100,000 B. T. U. for 1000 cubic fe^t 
and weighs 0.045 lbs. per cubic foot. 

The analyses compare -^^^ follows : 

Table no. 29. 
Analyses of Natural Gas. 



Pittsburgh, Pa., Gas. 

Hydrogen 22.0 

Marshgas 67.0 

Carbonic oxide 0.6 

defiant gas 1.0 

Carbonic acid 0.6 

Nitrogen 3.0 

Oxygen 0.8 

Ethylic hydride 5.0 

Sulphuretted hydrogen 

100. 



Findlay, Ohio, Gas. 

2.18 
92.61 
0.26 
0.30 
0.50 
3.61 
0.34 

0.20 
100.00 




250 H. P. Heine Boiler "en route." 
39 










(A) 




a> 




o 




OQ 




>^ 


bJO-'- 




c< 




^H 


CO 




"53 


>>HX 


go 


Du* 


o , 






X 


'a< 


vo 


b . 1 


CM 


c^ 


CO 


>.H 


x: 


.t:i-l 


-M 


U< 


^ 


if) 






T3 




<L» 




D. 




a. 




D 




CT 




UJ 



WATER. 



Pure water at 62° F. weighs 62.355 pounds per cubic foot, or 83- pounds 
per U. S. gallon ; 7.48 gallons = 1 cubic foot. It takes 30 pounds or 3.6 
gallons for each horse-power per hour. It would be difficult to get at the 
total daily horse-power of steam used in the U. S., but it reaches into the 
billions of gallons of feed water per day. 

The importance of knowing what impurities exist in most feed waters, 
how these act on a boiler, and how they may be removed is, therefore, 
patent to every intelligent engineer. 

We give, therefore, the thoughts of some prominent investigators on 
the subject. 

Prof. Thurston says : 

'* Incrustation and sediment are deposited in boilers, the one by the 
precipitation of mineral or other salts previously held in solution in the feed- 
water, the other by the deposition of mineral insoluble matters, usually 
earths, carried into it in suspension or mechanical admixture. Occasionally 
also vegetable matter of a glutinous nature is held in solution in the feed- 
water, and, precipitated by heat or concentration, covers the heating-surfaces 
with a coating almost impermeable to heat and hence liable to cause an 
over-heating that may be very dangerous to the structure. A powdery 
mineral deposit sometimes met with is equally dangerous, and for the same 
reason. The animal and vegetable oils and greases carried over from the 
condenser or feed water heater are also very likely to cause trouble. Only 
mineral oils should be permitted to be thus introduced, and that in minimum 
quantity. Both the efficiency and the safety of the boiler are endangered 
by any of these deposits. 

*' The amount of the foreign matter brought into the steam-boiler is 
often enormously great. A boiler of 100 horse-power uses, as an average, 
probably a ton and a half of water per hour, or not far from 400 tons per 
month, steaming ten hours per day, and even with water as pure as the 
Croton at New York, receives 90 pounds of mineral matter, and from many 
spring waters a ton which must be either blown out or deposited. These 
impurities are usually either calcium carbonate or calcium sulphate, or a 
mixture ; the first is most common on land, the second at sea. Organic 
matters often harden these mineral scales, and make them more difficult of 
removal. 

''The only positive and certain remedy for incrustation and sediment 
once deposited is periodical removal by mechanical means, at sufficiently 
frequent intervals to insure against injury by too great accumulation. 
Between times, some good may be done by special expedients suited to 
the individual case. No one process and no one antidote will suffice for all 
cases. 

41 



*' Where carbonate of lime exists, sal-ammoniac may be used as a pre- 
ventive of incrustation, a double decomposition occuring, resulting in the 
production of ammonium carbonate and calcium chloride — both of which are 
soluble, and the first of which is volatile. The bicarbonate may be in part 
precipitated before use by heating to the boiling-point, and thus breaking up 
the salt and precipitating the insoluble carbonate. Solutions of caustic lime 
and metallic zinc act in the same manner. Waters containing tannic acid 
and the acid juices of oak, sumach, logwood, hemlock, and other woods, are 
sometimes employed, but are apt to injure the iron of the boiler, as may 
acetic or other acid contained in the various saccharine matters often intro- 
duced into the boiler to prevent scale, and which also make the lime-sulphate 
scale more troublesome than when clean. Organic matters should never be 
used. 

*' The sulphate scale is sometimes attacked by the carbonate of soda, 
the products being a soluble sodium sulphate and a pulverulent insoluble 
calcium carbonate, which settles to the bottom like other sediments and is 
easily washed off the heating-surfaces. Barium chloride acts similarly, 
producing barium sulphate and calcium chloride. All the alkalies are used at 
times to reduce incrustations of calcium sulphate, as is pure crude petroleum, 
the tannate of soda, and other chemicals. 

**The effect of incrustation, and of deposits of various kinds, is to 
enormously reduce the conducting power of heating-surfaces ; so much so, 
that the power, as well as the economic efficiency of a boiler, may become 
very greatly reduced below that for which it is rated, and the supply of 
steam furnished by it may become wholly inadequate to the requirements of 
the case. 

"There is much controversy as to the loss in efficiency due to scale on 
the heating surfaces, but the preponderance of evidence seems to be that scale 
does not affect the transmission of heat to the extent popularly supposed. 
The boilers of steam vessels are peculiarly liable to injury from this cause 
where using salt water, and the introduction of the surface-condenser has 
been thus brought about as a remedy. Land boilers are subject to incrusta- 
tion by the carbonate and other salts of lime, and by the deposit of sand or 
mud mechanically suspended in the feed-water. 

" It has been estimated that the annual cost of operation of locomotives 
in limestone districts is increased $750 by deposits of scale." 

We give below an extract from an interesting paper on the '^ Impurities 
of Water," contributed by Messrs. Hunt and Clapp, to the transactions of 
the American Institute of Mining Engineers, for 1888. 



Commercial Analyses. 

By far the most common commercial analysis of water is made to deter- 
mine its fitness for making steam. Water containing more than five parts 
per hundred thousand of free sulphuric or nitric acid is liable to cause serious 
corrosion, not only of the metal of the boiler itself, but of the pipes, cylin- 
ders, pistons, and valves with which the steam comes in contact. Sulphuric 
acid is the only one of these acids liable to be present in the water from 

42 



natural sources ; it being often produced in the water of the coal and iron 
districts, by the oxidation of iron pyrites to sulphate of iron, which, being 
soluble, is lixiviated from the earth strata, and carried into the stream. The 
presence of organic matter taken up by the water in its after-course, reduc- 
ing the iron and lining the bottom of the stream with red oxide of iron, and 
leaving a considerable proportion of the sulphuric acid free in the water. 
This is a troublesome feature with the water necessarily used in many of 
the iron districts of this country. The sulphuric acid may come from other 
natural chemical reactions than the one described above. Muriatic and nitric 
acids, as well as often sulphuric acid, may be conveyed into water through 
the refuse of various kinds of manufacturing establishments discharged into it. 

The large total residue in water used for making steam causes the inte- 
rior linings of the boilers to become coated, clogs their action, and often pro- 
duces a dangerous hard scale, which prevents the cooling action of the water 
from protecting the metal against burning. 

Lime and magnesia bicarbonates in water lose their excess of carbonic 
acid on boiling, and often, especially when the water contains sulphuric acid, 
produce, with the other solid residues constantly being formed by the evap- 
oration, a very hard and insoluble scale. 

A larger amount than 100 parts per 100,000 of total solid residue will 
ordinarily cause troublesome scale, and should condemn the water for use 
in steam boilers, unless a better supply cannot be obtained. 

The following is a tabulated form of the causes of trouble with water for 
steam purposes, and the proposed remedies, given by Prof. L. M. Norton, in 
his lecture on '* Industrial Chemistry." 

Brief Statement of Causes of Incrustation. 

1. Deposition of suspended matter. 

2. Deposition of dissolved salts from concentration. 

3. Deposition of carbonates of lime and magnesia by boiling off car- 
bonic acid, which holds them in solution. 

4. Deposition of sulphates of lime, because sulphate of lime is but 
slightly soluble in cold water, less soluble in hot water, insoluble above 140° 
Centigrade. (284 degrees Fahrenheit.) 

5. Deposition of magnesia, because magnesium salts decompose at 
high temperature. 

6. Deposition of lime soap, iron soap, etc., formed by saponification 
of grease. 

Various Means of Preventing Incrustation. 

1. Filtration. 

2. Blowing off. 

3. Use of internal collecting apparatus or devices for directing the cir- 
culation. 

4. Heating feed water. 

5. Chemical or other treatment of water in boiler. 

6. Introduction of zinc into boiler. 

7. Chemical treatment of water outside of boiler. 



43 



Troublesome Substance. 

Sediment, mud, clay, etc. 

Readily soluble salts. 

Bicarbonates of lime, magnesia, 
iron. 



Sulphate of lime. 

Chloride and sulphate of magne- 
sium. 



Tabular View. 

Trouble. 
Incrustation. 
Incrustation. 

Incrustation. 

Incrustation. 
Corrosion. 



Carbonate of soda in large amounts. Priming. 

Corrosion. 
Corrosion. 



Acid (in mine waters). 

Dissolved carbonic acid and ox- 
ygen. 



Grease (from condensed water). Corrosion. 



Organic matter (sewage). 
Organic matter. 



Priming. 
Corrosion. 



Remedy or Palliation. 

i Filtration, 
t Blowing off. 

Blowing off. 

r Heating feed. Addition of cau» 
i tic soda, lime, or magna* 
[ sia, etc. 

/ Addition of carbonate of soda, 
1 barium chloride. 

/ Addition of carbonate of soda, 

I etc. 

r Addition of barium chloride, 
I etc. 

Alkali. 

r Heating feed. Addition of caus- 
1 tic soda, slacked lime, etc. 

r Slacked lime and filtering. Car- 
< bonate of soda. Substitute 
I mineral oil. 

/Precipitate with alum or ferric 
\ chloride and filter. 

Ditto. 



The mineral matters causing the most troublesome boiler-scales are bi- 
carbonates and sulphates of lime and magnesia, oxides of iron and alumina, 
and silica. We present here a table showing the amount and nature of im- 
purities in feed water in different sections of the United States. (Table 33.) 

Note. The mud drum of the Heine Boiler, surrounded as it is, by water at a 
temperature of about 350° F., forms a sort of live steam purifier in which a large part 
of the scale forming salts are precipitated. It is largely on this account that the 
Heine Boiler is able to work satisfactorily with the most impure waters, where other 
boilers, lacking the mud-drum-purifier, fail of success altogether. This has been 
practically demonstrated on many occasions. Probably no ** tougher" water is 
encountered by boiler users anywhere, than in Columbus, Ohio. Heine Boilers sup- 
planted flue boilers there, that were struggling in vain against scale. The success of 
the Heine Boiler with this water was a most unqualified one. The L. Hoster Brewing 
Co. and the Columbus Electric Light and Power Co. both have large plants of 
Heine Boilers, and we think will cheerfully testify to the superiority of the Heine 
Boiler in this respect. It is not claimed that NO scale will form in the Heine Boiler 
when operated with scale producing water. It is only those boilers which have no 
particular reputation for good service, those boilers that are guaranteed (?) to do 
anything and everything, that run scaleless on bad water. Eternal vigilance is the 
price of many things besides liberty and constant watchfulness is necessary if scale 
is to be avoided in any boiler. But common, every day experience has shown that 
the conditions which aid in the prevention of scale in boilers are more perfectly pro- 
vided for in the Heine than in any other type. 



Oil or grease often causes as much trouble in boilers as scale or mud, 
and is much more difficult to remove, as it cannot be '' blown off.'* It re- 
quires especial care where a part or the whole of the feed water comes from 
condensers or from heating coils where exhaust steam is used. 

We reprint a warning given by the oldest boiler insurance company in 
the United States. 



44 



Table no. 33. 



Table of Water Analyses. 

Grains per U. S. Gallon, 231 Cubic Inches. 



WHERE FROM. 



Buffalo, N. Y., Lake Erie 

Pittsburgh, Allegheny River 

Pittsburgh, Monongahela River- - 

Milwaukee, Wisconsin River 

Galveston, Texas, 1 

Columbus, Ohio 

Washington, D. C, citysupply-- 

Baltimore, Md., city supply 

Sioux City, la., city supply 

Los Angeles, Cal., 1 

Bay City, Michigan, Bay 

Bay City, Michigan, River 

Cincinnati, Ohio River 

Watertown, Conn 

Ft. Wayne, Ind 

Wilmington, Del 

Galveston, Texas, 2 

Wichita, Kansas 

Los Angeles, Cal., 2 

St. Louis, Mo., well water 

Pittsburgh, Pa., artesian well 

Springfield, 111., 1 

Springfield, 111., 2 

Hillsboro, 111 

Pueblo, Colo 

Long Island City, L. I 

Mississippi River, above Missouri 
River 

Mississippi River, below mouth of 
Missouri River 

Mississippi River at St. Louis 
W. W 

Missouri River above mouth 



4) CS 



5.66 

0.37 

1.06 

6.23 

13.68 

20.76 

2.87 

2.77 

19.76 

10.12 

8.47 

4.84 

3.88 

1.47 

8.78 

10.04 

21.79 

14.14 

3.72 

27.04 

23.45 

12.99 

5.47 

14.56 

4.32 

4.0 

8.24 

10.64 

9.64 
10.07 



C ^ 

« -q 



B 1/5 



3.32 

3.78 

5.12 

4.67 

13.52 

11.74 

3.27 

0.65 

1.24 

5.84 

10.36 

33.66 

0.78 

4.51 

6.22 

6.02 

29.149 

25.91 

12.59 

23.73 

5.71 

7.40 

4.31 

2.97 

16.15 

28.0 

1.02 

7.41 

6.94 
8.92 



u 

O 



0.58 
0.58 
0.64 
1.76 

326.64 
7.02 

Trace. 

Trace. 

1.17 

3.51 

20.48 

126.78 
1.79 
1.76 
3.51 
4.29 

398.99 
24.34 

15.57 
18.41 
1.97 
1.56 
2.39 
1.20 
16.0 

0.50 

1.36 

1.54 

1.87 



A 




b 




(« 




u 








X 


- 





o. 


c 
o 


3 
C/3 


u 




~ 





0.37 
0.78 
20.14 
Trace. 
0.58 
0.36 
0.10 
1.03 
2.63 
1.15 
3.00 

Trace. 
1.59 
8.48 



0.76 
3.49 
1.04 
2.19 

4.28 
1.63 
1.97 



be 
6 



o ^ 
> 



1.22 

1.57 
3.26 



0.18 
1.50 
3.20 
6.50 

Trace. 
6.50 
2.10 
3.80 
4.40 
4.10 
8.74 

10.92 

Trace. 
1.78 

10.98 
6.17 
4.00 
2.00 
6.00 
0.46 
0.82 
8.62 
5.83 

Trace. 
5.12 
1.0 

5.25 

15.86 

9.85 
11.37 



c/) 

o 



9.74 

6.60 

10.80 

39.30 

353.84 

46.60 

8.60 

7.30 

27.60 

26.20 

49.20 

179.20 

6.73 

9.52 

31.08 

35.00 

4o3.93 

66.39 

23.07 

70.29 

49.43 

33.17 

21.45 

21.55 

28.76 

39.0 

15.01 

36.49 

29.54 
35.49 



45 



(Reprinted from 'THE LOCOMOTIVE," March, 1885; published by the Hartford Steam 
Boiler Inspection and Insurance Co.) 

The Effect of Oil in Boilers. 

We have often referred to the fact that the presence of grease or any of 
the animal oils in steam boilers is alm.ost certain to cause trouble. Our 
i- lustration this mionth gives a better idea of the effect produced than pages 
of verbal description possibly could. It is from a photograph and is nowise 
exaggerated 




The boiler from which the plate shown in the cut was taken, was a 
nearly new one. It was made of a well-known brand of mild steel, and 
that it was admirably adapted to the purpose for which it was used, is proved 
by its stretching as it did without rupture. The dimensions of bulge shown 
are four feet lengthwise of the boiler, three feet girthwise and nine inches 
deep. The metal, originally 5-16 of an inch thick, drew down to ^ inch in 
thickness at the lowest point of the *'bag" without the slightest indication 
of fracture. 

The circumstances under which the bulge occurred may best be described 
in the words of the inspector who examined the boiler, and are as follows : 

''Last Tuesday morning I was called in great haste to the works. 

Upon arrival I found one of the boilers badly bulged, and with twenty pounds 
of steam up. I could give no explanation until I had thoroughly examined 
the internal parts of the boiler. I gave directions for cooling the boiler and 
ordered top man-hole plate to be loosened, but not to be taken out until my 
arrival in the afternoon, that I might see everything undisturbed. This was 
done. On my arrival I took out the man-hole plates in top of shell and 
front head * * * and made an examination." 

' 'I found that the boiler had been cleaned the preceding Sunday, and at that 
time a gallon or more of black oil had been thrown into it. Monday morning 
the boiler was fired up and was run through the day at a pressure of 90 
pounds per square inch. At six o'clock Monday night the engine was stop- 
ped, the drafts were closed, and no more firing was done until nine o'clock. 
Upon going to fire up at this time, the bulge was observed. From six to 
nine o'clock a pressure of only 40 pounds was carried." 

''Upon examination I found the entire boiler saturated with this oil." 

This is almost certain to be the result of putting grease into a steam 
boiler. It settles down on the fire-sheets, when the draft is closed, and the 
circulation of water nearly stops, and prevents contact between the plates 

46 



and the water. As a consequence, the plates over the fire become over- 
heated; and under such circumstances a very slight steam -pressure is suffi- 
cient to bag the sheets. Unless the boiler is made of very good material, 
the plate is apt to be fractured, and explosion is likely to occur. 

When oil is used to remove scale from steam-boilers, too much care 
cannot be exercised to make sure that it is free from grease or animal oil. 
Nothing but pure mineral oil should be used. Crude petroleum is one 
thing; black oil, which may mean almost anything, is very likely to be 
something quite different. 

The action of grease in a boiler is peculiar, but not more so than we 
might expect. It does not dissolve in the water, nor does it decompose, 
neither does it remain on top of the water, but it seems to form itself into 
what may be described as "slugs," which at first seem to be slightly lighter 
than the water, of just such a gravity, in fact, that the circulation of the 
water carries them about at will. After a short season of boiling, these 
"slugs" or suspended drops seem to acquire a certain degree of "stickiness," 
so that when they come in contact with shell and flues of the boiler, they 
begin to adhere thereto. Then under the action of heat they begin the 
process of "varnishing" the interior of the boiler. The thinnest possible 
coating of this varnish is sufficient to bring about overheating oj the plates, 
as we have found repeatedly in our experience. We emphasize the point 
that it is not necessary to have a coating of grease of any appreciable 
thickness to cause overheating and bagging of plates and leakage at seams. 

The time when damage is most likely to occur is after the fires are 
banked, for then, the formation of steam being checked, the circulation of 
water stops, and the grease thus has an opportunity to settle on the bottom 
of the boiler and prevent contact of the water with the fire -sheets. Under 
these circumstances, a very low degree of heat in the furnace is sufficient to 
overheat the plates to such an extent that bulging is sure to occur. When 
the facts are understood, it will be found quite unnecessary to attribute the 
damage to low water. 

This accident also serves to illustrate the perfection to which the manu- 
facture of steel for boiler plates has attained. It would be an extraordin- 
arily good quality of iron that would stand such a test without fracture. 




A South African Street Railway Power Station, 

Contains 1200 H. P. of Heine Boilers. 

47 




'3 

OQ 

OJ (U 

c/5 • (-• 

DO — 

CD rr . 
c5Qu 

Jo . 

Ql^ -J X 

c 

c 
o 

U 



Weight of Water. 

The weight of water varies with the temperature as given by the fol- 
lowing table. (C. A. SMITH.) 

TABLE No. 34. 

Weight of One Cubic Foot Water at Various Temperatures, 



Temp., 
Degrees F. 



Weight per 
Cubic Foot. 



Temp., 
Degrees F. 



Weight per 
Cubic Foot. 



Temp., 
Degrees F, 



Weight per 
Cubic Foot. 



Temp., 
Degrees F. 



Weight per 
Cubic Foot. 



32 


62.418 


85 


62.182 


145 


61.291 


35 


62.422 


90 


62.133 


150 


61.201 


39.1 


62.425 


95 


62.074 


155 


61.096 


40 


62.425 


100 


62.022 


160 


60.991 


45 


62.422 


105 


61.960 


165 


60.843 


50 


62.409 


110 


61.868 


170 


60.783 


55 


62.394 


115 


61.807 


175 


60.665 


60 


62.372 


120 


61.715 


180 


60.548 


65 


62.344 


125 


61.654 


185 


60.430 


70 


62.313 


130 


61.563 


190 


60.314 


75 


62.275 


135 


61.472 


195 


60.198 


80 


62.232 


140 


61.381 


200 


60.081 



205 
210 
212 

By formula. 

212 

By measurem't 

230 
250 
270 
290 
298 
338 
366 
390 



59.930 
59.820 
59.760 
59.640 
59.360 
58.780 
58.150 
57.590 
57.270 
56.140 
55.290 
54.540 



Very often in the trials of a boiler or engine the most convenient unit of 
measurement of water is the cubic foot. This will be the case when a weir 
measurement is made or when the water is measured by a water meter. The 
uje of a water meter involves many precautions, the most important being 
the following : The meter should work under moderate head of supply and 
small head of delivery ; it should be set in such a manner that it can be 
tested in place under the exact conditions of use ; if a positive meter, it should 
be especially constructed to work freely, if it is to be used in warm water- 
This table is also used for estimating the weight of water in boilers, and for 
•correcting boiler trials for differences of water level. 




150 H. P. Heine Boiler. 

Size for Water Pipes. 

We found at beginning of this article, 3.6 gallons feed water are required 
for each H. P. per hour. This makes 6 gallons per minute for a 100 H. P. 
.boiler. In proportioning pipes, however, it is well to rem ember that boiler 

49 



work is seldom perfectly steady, and that as the engine cuts off just as much 
steam as the work demands at each stroke, all the discrepancies of demand 
and supply have to be equalized in the boiler. Therefore we may often have 
to evaporate during one-half hour 50 to 75 per cent more than the normal 
requirements. For this reason it is sound policy to arrange the feed pipes so 
that 10 gallons per minute may flow through them, without undue speed or 
friction, for each 100 H. P. of boiler capacity. The following tables will 
facilitate this work : 

TABLE No. 35. 

Table Giving Rate of Flow of Water, in Ft, per Min., Through 
Pipes of Various Sizes, for Varying Quantities of Flow, 



Gallons 
per min. 


%" 


1" 


^Ya!' 


IX" 


2" 


2K" 


3" 


4" 


5 
10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
50 


218 

436 

653 

.872 

1090 




122J 
245 
367J 
490 
612J 
735 
857J 
980 
1102J 


78J 
157 
235J 
314 
392J 
451 
549i 
628 
706J 
785 
1177J 


54J 
109 
163J 
218 
272i 
327 
381J 
436 
490J 
545 
817J 
1090 


30^ 
61 
91i 
122 
152J 
183 
213J 
244 
274J 
305 
457J 
610 
762J 
915 
1067J 
1220 


19i 
38 
58i 
78 
97i 
117 
136i 
156 
175 J 
195 
292i 
380 
487^ 
585 
682^ 
780 


13i 

27 

40^ 

54 

67J 

81 

94J 
108 
121J 
135 
202.i 
270 
337J 
405 
472J 
540 


78 
15J 
23 
3C§ 
38^ 
46 
53§ 
61* 
69 
76| 


75 
100 






115 

153* 

1911 


125 








150 










230 


175 










268* 


200 










3061 















36. 



Table Giving 



Table No. 

Loss in Pressure Due to Friction, in Pounds per 
Sq. In., for Pipe 100 Ft. Long. 

By G. A. Ellis, C. E. 



Gallons 
discharg- 
ed permin. 


%" 


1" 


IK" 


l>^" 


2" 


> 2;^" 


3" 


4" 


5 


3.3 
13.0 

28.7 
50.4 

78.0 


0.84 
3.16 
6.98 
12.3 
-19.0 
27.5 
37.0 
48.0 


0.31 
1.05 
2.38 
4.07 
6.40 
9.15 
12.4 
16.1 
20.2 
24.9 
56.1 


0.12^ 

0.47 

0.97 

1.66 

2.62 

3.75 

5.05 

6.52 

8.15 

10.0 

22.4 

39.0 










10 


0.12 








15 








20 


0.42 
0.91 








25 
80 


0.21 


0.10 




35 








40 


1.60 








45 








50 






2.44 
5.32 
9.46 
14.9 
21.2 
28.1 
37.5 


0.81 
1.80 
3.20 
4.89 
7.0 
9.46 
12.47 


0.35 
0.74 
1.31 
1.99 
2.85 
3.85 
5.02 


0.09 


75 
100 


1 




0.33 


125 










150 










0.69 


175 












200 










1.22 




i 


1 









50 



Loss of Head Due to Bends. 

Bends produce a loss of head in the flow of water in pipes. Weisbach 
gives the following formula for this loss : 

2 

H = f — where H = loss of head in feet, f = coefficient of friction, v 

2g » 

= velocity of flow in feet per second, g = 32.2. 

As the loss of head or pressure is in most cases more conveniently stated 
in pounds per square inch, we may change this formula by multiplying by 
0.433, which is the equivalent in pounds per square inch for one foot head. 

If P = loss in pressure in pounds per square inch, F = coefficient of 
friction. 

9 

P = F ^rr^, V being the same as before. 
64.4' *^ 

From this formula has been calculated the following table of vdues for 

F, corresponding to various exterior angles, A. 

Table No. 37. . 



A 
F 



20° 


40° 


45°' 


60° 


80° 


. 90° 


100° 


110° 


120° 


0.020 


0.060 


0.079 


0.158 


0.320 


'0.426 


0.546 


0.674 


0.806 



130° 
0.934 



This applies to such short bends as are found in ordinary fittings, such 
as 90° and 45° Ells, Tees, etc. 

A globe valve will produce a loss about equal to two 90° bends, a 

straightway valve about equal to one 45° bend. To use the above formula 

^nd the speed p. second^ being one-sixtieth of that found in Table No. jj / 

square this speed , and divide the result by 64.4; multiply the quotient by the 

tabular value of F corresponding to the angle of the turn^ A. 

For instance a 400 H. P. battery of boilers is to be fed through a 2" 
pipe. Allowing for fluctuations we figure 40 gallons per minute, making 244 
feet per minute speed, equal to a velocity of 4.06 feet per second. Suppose 
our pipe is in all 75 feet long ; we have from Table No. 36, for 40 gallons per 
minute, 1.60 pounds loss; for 75 feet we have only 75 per cent, of this 
= 1.20 pounds. Suppose we have 6 right angled ells, each giving F = 
0.426. We have then 4.06X4.06 = 16.48; divide this by 64.4 = 0.256. 
Multiply this by F = 0.426 pounds, and as there are six ells, multiply again 
by 6, and we have 6x0.426x0.256 = 0.654. The total friction in the pipe 
is therefore 1.20-|-0.654 = 1.854 pounds per square inch. If the boiler 
pressure is 100 pounds and the water level in the boiler is 8 feet higher than 
the pump suction level, we have first 8x0.433 = 3.464 pounds. The total 
pressure on the pump plunger then is 100+3. 464-}-l. 854 = 105.32 pounds 
per square inch. If in place of six right angled ells we had used three 45° 
ells, they would have cost us only 3x0.079 = 0.237 pounds ; 0.237x0.256 
= 0.061. 

The total friction head would have been 1.20-{-0. 061 =1.261 and the 
total pressure on the plunger 100+3.464+1.261=104.73 pounds per square 
inch, a saving over the other plan of nearly 0.6 pounds. 

To be accurate, we ought to add a certain head in either case '* to pro- 
duce the velocity." But this is very small, being for velocities of : 

2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 8; 10; 12 and 18 feet per sec. 

0.027; 0.061; 0.108; 0.168; 0.244; 0.433; 0.672; 0.970 and 2. 18 lbs. per sq. in. 
Our results should therefore have been increased by about 0.11 lbs. 



51 






''^i^//.. 



'-c^ 



Foresters' Temple. 

Headquarters of Independent Order of Foresters, 

TORONTO, ONT., CANADA. 

Contains 240 H. P. of Heine Boilers. 



It is usual, however, to use larger pipes and thus to materially reduce 
the frictional losses. 



Rating Boilers by Feed Water. 

The rating of boilers has, since the Centennial in 1876, been generally 
based on 30 pounds feed water per hour per H. P. This is a fair average 
for good non-condensing engines working under about 70 to 100 pounds 
pressure. But different pressures and different rates of expansion change 
the requirements for feed-water. The following table, No. 38, gives Prof. 
R. H. Thurston's estimate of the steam consumption for the best classes oj 
engines in common use, when of moderate size and in good order: 

TABLE No. 38. 

Weights of Feed Water and of Steam. 

Non-condensing Engines. — R. H. T. 



Steam Pressure. 


Lbs. per H. P. per Hour.— Ratio of Expansion. 


Atmos- 
pheres. 


Lbs. per 
sq. in. 


2 


3 


1 
4 5 


7 


10 


3 
4 
5 

6 

7 

8 

10 


45 

60 

75 

90 

105 

]20 

150 


40 

35 
30 
28 
26 
25 
24 


39 
34 
28 
27 
25 
24 
23 


40 
36 
27 
26 
24 
23 
22 


40 
36 
26 
25 
23 
22 
21 


42 
38 
30 

27 
25 
22 
20 


45 
40 
32 
29 

27 
21 
20 



Condensing Engines. 



2 


30 


30 


28 


28 


30 


35 


40 


3 


45 


28 


27 


27 


26 


28 


32 


4 


60 


27 


26 


25 


24 


25 


27 


5 


75 


26 


25 


25 


23 


22 


24 


6 


90 


26 


24 


24 


22 


21 


20 


8 


120 


25 


23 


23 


22 


21 


20 


10 


150 . 


25 


23 


22 


21 


20 


19 



Small engines having greater proportional losses in friction, in leaks, in 
radiation, etc., and besides receiving generally less care in construction and 
running than larger ones, require more feed-water (or steam) per hour. 

Table No. 39 gives Mr. R. H. Buel's estimate for such engines. 



53 



TABLE No. 39. 



i 



Feed-Water Required by Small Engines. 





Poun 


ds of Water per 




Pounds of Water per 


Pressure of Steam 


Effed 


ive Horse-power 


Pressure of Steam 


Effective Horse-power 


In Boiler, by Gauge. 




per Hour. 


in Boiler, by Gauge. 


per Hour. 


10 




118 


60 


75* 


15 




111 


70 


I 1 


20 




105 


80 


68 


25 




100 


90 


65 


30 




93 


100 


63 


40 




84 


120 


61 


50 




79 


150 


58 




Boiler Room Alleghany Traction Co. Plant, 

PITTSBURGH, PA. 

500 H. P. Heine Boilers. 

Heating Feed-Water. 

Feed-water as it comes from wells or hydrants has ordinarily a tempera- 
ture of from 35° in winter to from 60° to 70° in summer. 

Much fuel can be saved by heating this water by the exhaust steam, 
whose heat would otherwise be wasted. Until quite recently, only non- 
condensing engines utilized feed-water heaters ; but lately they have been 
introduced with success between the cylinder and the air pump in condensing 
engines. The saving in fuel due to heating feed-water is given in Table 

No. 40. 

54 





o 
O 

o 
CO 


29.34 

28.78 
28.22 

27.67. 


27.12 
26.56 


26 02 
25.47 


24.92 
24.37 
23.82 
23.27 
22.73 
22.18 


<i3 

CO 

en 




o 

CI 


19.40 
18 89 
18.37 

17.87 


18.38 
16.86 


16.35 

15.84 


15.33 
14.82 
14.32 
13.81 
13.31 
12.80 


ige Pre 


o 

C-1 


15.81 
15.45 
15.09 
14.72 


14.35 
13.98 


13.60 
13.22 


12.84 
12.46 
12.07 
11.68 
11.29 
10.88 


ds Gai 


o 

s 

C4 


14.95 
14.59 
14.22 
13.85 


GO O 

'^ rH 

CO cc 

T-H r-^ 


12.72 
12.34 


12.95 
11.57 
11.18 
10.78 
10.38 
9.98 


Steam at 70 Poun 

S HEATED. 


o 
O 

o 


14.09 
13.73 
13.36 
12.98 


12.60 
12.22 


11.84 
11.45 


11.06 

10.67 

10.28 

9.88 

9.47 

9.07 




O 


13.24 
12.87 
12.49 
12.11 


11.73 
11.34 


10.96 
10.57 


10.17 

9.78 
9.38 
8.98 
8.57 
8.16 


h 

CO 

T—l 


12.38 
12.00 
11.62 
11.24 


10.85 
10.47 


10.08 
9.68 


9.28 
8.88 
8.48 
8.07 
7.66 
7.25 


TABLE NO. 40. 

eating Feed-Water. 

ERATURE TO WHICH FEED ] 


o 
O • 

rH 


11.52 
11.14 
10.76 
10.38 


9.99 
9.60 


9.20 
8.80 


8.40 
8.00 
7.59 
7.18 
6.77 
6.35 


O 

o 

CO 

iH 


10.66 

10.28 

9.90 

9.51 


9.11 

8.72 


8.32 
7.92 


7.51 
7.11 
670 
6.28 
5.86 
5.44 


o 

O 

lO 

rH 


9.89 
9.42 
9.03 

8.64 


8.24 

7.84 


7.44 
7.03 


6.62 
6.21 
5.80 
5.38 
4.96 
4.53 


by H 

TEMP 


O 

o 

rH 


8.95 
8.56 
8.16 

7 76 


7.37 
6.96 


6.56 
6.15 


5.73 
5.32 
4.90 
4.48 
4.05 
3.62 


CD 
P 


O 

O 

CO 

tH 


8.09 
7.69 
7.30 
6.89 


6.49 

6.08 


5.67. 
5.26 


4.84 
4.42 
4.00 
3.58 
3.15 
2.71 






O 


7.24 
6.84 
6.44 
6.03 


5.63 
5.21 


4.80 
4.38 


3.96 
3.54 
3.11 
2.G8 
2.25 
1.81 


> 
CO 

M— ■ 

o 

CD 
bX) 
c^ 
-*— » 


O 

I— ( 


6.38 
5.97 
5.57 
5.16 


4.75 
4.34 


3.92 
3.50 


3.07 
2.65 
2.22 
1.78 
1.34 
0.90 


o 

O 

O 


5.53 
5.12 
4.71 
4.30 


3.89 
3.47 


3.05 

2.62 


2.19 
1.76 
1.30 
0.89 
0.45 
0.00 



CD 
O 

(D 

a. 



^ 2 -a 
H 



o 


o 


o 


»0) 


O 


to 


C-2 


^ 


■rfi 



o 



>o 

lO 



o 

CD 



LO 

O 



O 



lO 



o 

O 

GO 



lO 
00 



O 
OS 



LO 



o 
o 



55 




STEAM. 

When water is heated in an open vessel its temperature rises until it 
reaches 212° (at sea level); if more heat is added a portion of the water 
changes from a liquid form to a vapor called steam. If the process is carried 
on m a closed vessel the pressure within the same rises on account of the 
expansive force of the steam. The water then will rise to a higher temper- 
ature with each increment of pressure before it begins to boil and form steam. 

For the distinction between ' 'sensible" and "latent" heat see p. 7. 

The following table No. 41, giving the properties of saturated steam is 
adapted from Prof. Peabody's well known tables. The first column gives 
the actual pressure in pounds per square inch above the atmosphere. 

Column two gives the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit for the cor- 
responding pressure. 

Columns three and four give the heat, in heat units, of steam and water 
respectively, from 32° F. * 

Column five gives the heat of vaporization for the corresponding pres- 
sure, and is the difference between columns three and four. 

Columns six and seven give the weight of one cubic foot in pounds and 
the volume of one pound in cubic feet, of saturated steam. 

Column eight gives the approximate weight of one cubic foot of water 
tor the corresponding weight and temperature and is calculated from Prof 
Rankin's approximate formula : 

n _ 2 Do 

~ " To + 461 ~ 500 ^^"'" 

500 ^ "To"+"46r 

D = required density. Do = max. density = 62.425 lbs. 
To = given temperature in degrees F. 

56 



Column nine gives the factor of equivalent evaporation from and at 212* 
F., assuming feed to be 212° in each case. For the factor of evaporation for 
any temperature of feed, add 0.00104 to the given factor for each degree dif- 
ference in temperature between feed and 212°. 

For complete table of factors of evaporation, see page 147. 

The horse-power of a boiler is obtained by dividing the equivalent 
evaporation from and at 212° by 30.978. This is on the basis of feed from 
212° to steam at 70 pounds pressure. On the basis of feed from 100° to steam 
at 70 lbs., divide the equivalent evaporation by 34.485. 

Table No. 4i. 
Table of the Properties of Saturated Steam, 

From Peabody's Tables. 



Gaugfe Pressure in lbs. 
per Square Inch. 


1 

<u 
Q 

c 

V 


Total Heat in Heat 
Units from Water 
at 32= F. 


'5 
cr 

*-'0 

U 


c 

lis 

>1 

<u .- 
X 


o 
ic 
•35 £ 

<=« 


3 

u 

c 

o "5 
> 


u 

3 

u 
°« 

1^ 


Factor of Equivalent 
Evaporation from 
an/i at 212^ F. 

1 





212.00 


1146.6 


180.8 


965.8 


0.03760 


26.60 


59.76 (Formula) 
59. 64 (Observed) 


1.0000 


10 


239.36 


1154.9 


208.4 


946.5 


0.06128 


16.32 


69.04 


1.0086 


20 


258.68 


1160.8 


227.9 


932.9 


0.08439 


11.85 


58.50 


1.0147 


30 


273.87 


1165.5 


243.2 


922.3 


0.1070 


9.347 


58.07 


1.0196 


40 


286.54 


1169.3 


255.9 


913.4 


0.1292 


7.736 


57.69 


1.0235 


60 


297.46 


1172.6 


266.9 


905 7 


0.1512 


6.612 


57.32 


1.0269 


55 


302.42 


1174.2 


271.9 


902.3 


0.1621 


6.169 


57.22 


1.0286 


60 


307.10 


1175.6 


276.6 


899.0 


0.1729 


5.784 


57.08 


1.0300 


65 


311.54 


1176.9 


281.1 


895.8 


0.1837 


5.443 


56.95 


1.0314 


70 


315.77 


1178.2 


285.6 


892.7 


0.1945 


6.142 


56.82 


1.0327 


75 


319.80 


1179.5 


289.8 


889 8 


0.2052 


4.873 


56.69 


1.0341 


80 


323.66 


1180.6 


293.8 


886.9 


0.2159 


4.633 


66.59 


1.0352 


85 


327.36 


1181.8 


297.7 


884.2 


0.2265 


4.415 


56.47 


1.0365 


90 


330.92 


1182.8 


301.5 


881.5 


0.2371 


4.218 


56.36 


1.0375 


95 


334.35 


1183.9 


305.0 


879.0 


0.2477 


4.037 


56.25 


1.0386 


100 


337.66 


1184.9 


308.5 


876.5 


0.2583 


3.872 


66.18 


1.0397 


105 


340.86 


1185.9 


311.8 


874.1 


0.2689 


3.720 


56.07 


1.0407 


110 


343.95 


1186.8 


315.0 


871.8 


0.2794 


3.680 


55.97 


1.0417 


115 


346.94 


1187.7 


318.2 


869.6 


0.2898 


3.452 


55.87 


1.0426 


12n 


349.85 


1188.6 


321.2 


867.4 


0.3003 


3.330 


55.77 


1.0435 


125 


352.68 


1189.5 


324.2 


865.3 


0.3107 


3.219 


65.69 


1 .0444 


130 


355.43 


1190.3 


327.0 


863.3 


0.3212 


3.113 


55.58 


1.0452 


135 


358.10 


1191.1 


329.8 


861.3 


0.3315 


3.017 


55.52 


1.0461 


140 


360.70 


1191.9 


332.5 


859.4 


0.3420 


2.924 


55.44 


1.0469 


145 


363.25 


1192.8 


335.2 


857.5 


0.3524 


2.838 


55.36 


1.0478 


150 


365.73 


1193.5 


337.8 


855.7 


0.3629 


2.756 


55.29 


1.0486 


165 


368.62 


1194.3 


340 3 


853.9 


0.3731 


2.6^1 


55.22 


1.0494 


160 


370.51 


1195.0 


342.8 


852.1 


0.3835 


2.608 


55.15 


1.0500 


165 


372.83 


1195.7 


345.2 


850.4 


0.3939 


2.539 


55.07 


1.0508 


170 


375.09 


1196.3 


347.6 


848.7 


0.4043 


2.474 


54.99 


1.0514 


175 


377.31 


1197.0 


349.9 


847.1 


0.4147 


2.412 


54.93 


1.0522 


180 


379.48 


1197.7 


352.2 


845.4 


0.4251 


2.353 


54.86 


1.0529 


185 


381.60 


1198.3 


354.4 


843.9 


0.4353 


2.297 


54.79 


1.0535 


190 


388.70 


1199.0 


356.6 


842.3 


0.4455 


2.244 


54.73 


1.0542 


195 


385.75 


1199.6 


358.8 


840.S 


0.4^59 


2.193 


54.66 


1.0549 


200 


387.76 


1200.2 


360.9 


839.2 


0.4663 


2.145 


54.60 


1.0565 


225 


397.36 


1203.1 


370.9 


832.2 


0.5179 


1.930 


54.27 


1.0585 


250 


406.07 


1205.8 


380.1 


825.7 


0.5699 


1.755 


54.03 


1.0613 


275 


414.22 


1208.3 


3S8.5 


819.8 


0.621 


1.609 


53.77 


1.0639 


3t0 


421.83 


1210.6 


396.5 


814.1 


0.674 


^ 1.483 


53.54 


1.0666 



57 




The Betz Building, 

PHILADELPHIA, PA. 

Contains 500 H. P. Heine Boilers. 



Of the Motion of Steam. 

The flow of steam of a greater pressure into an atmosphere of a less 
pressure, increases as the difference of pressure is increased, until the 
external pressure becomes only 58 per cent of the absolute pressure in the 
boiler. The flow of steam is neither increased nor diminished by the fall of 
the external pressure below 58 per cent, or about ^ths of the inside pressure, 
■even to the extent of a perfect vacuum. In flowing through a nozzle of the 
best form, the steam expands to the external pressure, and to the volume 
due to this pressure, so long as it is not less than 58 per cent of the internal 
pressure. For an external pressure of 58 percent, and for lower percentages, 
the ratio of expansion is 1 to 1.624. The following table. No. 42, is selected 
"from Mr. Brownlee's data exemplifying the rates of discharge, under a 
<:onstant internal pressure, into various external presslires: 

TABLE No. 42. 

Outflow of Steam ; From a Given Initial Pressure into 
Various Lower Pressures. 

Absolute Initial Pressure in Boiler, 75 Lbs. per Square Inch. 

D. K. C. 



Absolute Pressure 

in Boiler in Lbs. 

per Square Inch. 


External Pressure 

in Lbs. 
per Square Inch. 


Ratio of 

Expansion in 

Nozzle. 


Velocity of 
Outflow at Con- 
stant Density. 


Actual Velocity 

of Outflow, 

Expanded. 


Discharge per 

Square Inch 

of Orifice per 

Minute. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Ratio. 


Ft. per Sec. 


Ft. per Sec. 


Lbs. 


75 


74 


1.012 


227.5 


230. 


16.68 


75 


72 


1.037 


386.7 


401. 


28.35 


75 


70 


1.063 


490. 


521. 


35.93 


75 


65 


1.136 


660. 


749. 


48.38 


75 


61.62 


1.198 


736. 


876. 


53.97 


75 


60 


1.219 


765. 


933. 


56.12 


■ 75 


50 


1.434 


873. 


1252. 


64. 


75 


45 


. 1.575 


890. 


1401. 


65.24 


75 


43.46 (58%) 


1.624 


890.6 


1446.5 


65.3 


75, 


15 


1.624 


890.6 


1446.5 


65.3 


75 





1.624 


890.6 


1446.5 


65.3 



When, on the contrary, steam of varying initial pressure is discharged 
into the atmosphere — pressures of which the atmospheric pressure is not 
more than 58 per cent — the velocity of outflow at constant density, that is, 
supposing the initial density to be maintained, is given by the formula — 

V = 3.5953 Vir (1) 
where V = the velocity of outflow in feet per minute, as for steam of the 
initial density, h = the height in feet of a column of steam of the given abso- 
lute initial pressure of uniform density, the weight of which is equal to the 
pressure on the unit of base. 

The following table is calculated from this formula : 



59 



TABLE No. 43. 

Outflow of Steam into the Atmosphere. 

D. K. C. 



Absolute initial 


External pres- 




Velocity of out- 


Actual velocity 


Discharge per 


pressure in 


sure in lbs. 


sion in nozzle. 


flow at con- 


of outflow, ex- 


sq. in of ori- 


lbs. per sq. in. 


per sq. in. 


stant density. 


panded. 


fice per min. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Ratio. 


Ft. per sec. 


Ft. per sec. 


Lbs. 


25.37 


14.7 


1.624 


863 


1401 


22.81 


30 


14.7 


1.624 


867 


1408 


26.84 


40 


14.7 


1.624 


874 


1419 


35.18 


45 


14.7 


1.624 


877 


1424 


39.78 


50 


14.7 


1.624 


880 


1429 


44.06 


60 


14.7 


1.624 


885 


1437 


52.59 


70 


14.7 


1.624 


889 


1444 


61.07 


75 


14.7 


1.624 


891 


1447 


65 30 


90 


14.7 


1.624 


895 


1454 


77.94 


100 


14.7 


1.624 


898 


1459 


86.34 


115 


14.7 


1.624 


902 


1466 


98.76 


135 


14.7 


1.624 


906 


1472 


115.61 


155 


14.7 


1.624 


910 


1478 


132.21 


165 


14.7 


1.624 


912 


1481 


140.46 


215 


14.7 


1.624 


919 


1493 


181.58 



The Economic Value of Dry Steam. 

Saturated steam is defined as steam of the maximum pressure and 
density due to its temperature. It is steam in its normal condition, being 
both at the condensing and the generating point. It is formed thus in a well- 
designed boiler, and any heat added would evaporate more water, while heat 
taken away would condense some of the steam. In badly-proportioned 
boilers, however, we find water entrained in the steam in the form of a fme 
mist. This is caused by imperfect arrangements for separating the steam 
from the water; by a liberating surface either too small or too near the hot 
metal; by a cramped or low steam-space; or by more heating surface than 
the water-space or circulation warrants. It is only during the last decade 
that the attention of steam users generally has been bent on getting dry 
steam, i.e., saturated steam containing but a small percentage of entrained 
water. 

Formerly, with long stroke and slow speed engines, and when cylinder 
condensation was understood but by a few experts, this entrainment was 
rarely measured. 

In Mr. D. K. Clark's celebrated Manual for Mechanical Engineers (1877), 
which contains the record and careful analysis of many notable boiler tests, 
entrainment is not even mentioned. Most of the high results of ancient 
tests which are paraded in advertisements are therefore open to the suspicion 
that they may have been obtained by delivering *' soda water " in place of 
steam. Since calorimeter tests have become common, entrainments up to 6 
and 10 per cent, have been found in boilers apparently giving high economy. 
As early as 1860, Chief Engineer Isherwood, of the U. S. Navy, began 
invs'stigating the economic losses due to moisture in the cylinder. 

60 



Superheated steam was suggested as a remedy for cylinder condensation 
by Prof. Dixwell, of Boston, early in 1875, and Mr. Hirn, of Mulhouse, made 
extensive and successful experiments in this line in 1873 and 1875 (first 
published in 1877). Where good saturated steam induces such wasteful 
condensation in the cylinder, wet steam greatly increases the losses. For 
the water cools the internal surfaces of the cylinder more rapidly than steam 
of the same temperature, and this increases the cylinder condensation. 
Hence, economic reasons condemned wet steam, and finally close-coupled 
and nigh-speed engines protested against entrainment in the emphatic language 
of broken valves and blown out cylinder heads. 

Marine boilers are called upon for a maximum of work in a minimum of 
space, and are therefore more liable to entrain water ; this was especially 
the case with the low-pressures in use before 1880. We therefore find super- 
heated steam resorted to in the navy at an early day. 

Exhaustive experiments made by Mr. Isherwood early in the sixties 
show large gains in economy by superheating, and thus illustrate the losses 
due to water in the steam. 

We choose only two examples in which the boiler pressure and the rate 
of expansion are alike ; the economy found is therefore clearly du(? to super- 
heating the steam, or conversely the loss is due to cylinder condensation. 

TABLE NO. 44. 



Name of Steamer. 


Pounds 

Gauge 

Pressure. 


Rate 

of 

Expansion. 


Pounds 

Coal 

Per H.P.perh. 


Character of steam used. 


Saving in Coal. 


Dallas 


32 
33 


3.22 
3.22 


3.80 
2.58 


Saturated. 
Superheated. 




Georgeanna 


47.3 % 


Eutaw 


27 
28 


1.85 
1.85 


8.84 
2.99 


Saturated. 
Superheated. 




Eutaw 


28.4 % 



At the instance of Prof. Dixwell, the Government in 1877 sent Chief 
Engineers Loring, Baker and Farmer to Boston to test the effect of super- 
heated steam on the small Corliss engine of the Institute of Technology. 
The boiler pressure throughout the six tests was kept uniform. Three dif- 
ferent rates of expansion were taken, and with each, one test was run with 
saturated and one with superheated steam, the degree of superheat being 
adjusted to the rate of expansion. The total steam used was condensed and 
weighed, and the loss by cylinder condensation thus accurately determined. 

TABLE No. 45. 

Tests of Corliss Engine 8" x 24," Mass. Inst, of Technology. 



Pounds 


Rate 

of 

Expansion. 


Superheat. 


Pounds steam per H. P. per hour. 


Loss by moisture 


Boiler 
Pressure. 


1st Test, 
Superheated. 


2d Test, 
Saturated. 


when using 
Saturated Steam. 


50.4 
50.1 
50.2 


4.05 
2.16 
1.44 


279^^ F. 
194° F. 
129° F. 


19.39 
21.75 
26.48 


27.66 
29.14 
33.54 


42.6 % 
33.9 % 
26.6 % 



61 



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Both series of experiments show great losses by cylinder condensation ; 
they show also that these losses increase with the rate of expansion ; and 
they show greater losses with marine than with land boilers. This effect of 
cylinder condensation and wet steam can also be partially counteracted by 
steam or hot air jackets around the cylinders. 

In his admirable work on the Steam" Engine, Mr. D. K. Clark gives a 
number of carefully prepared tables on the Practice of Expansive Working 
in Steam Engines. By comparing in these the amount of steam shown by 
the indicator cards on the basis of dry saturated steam with the actual feed 
water used, we fmd the percentage of loss due to cylinder condensation and 
entrainment. This is figured in percentages of the calculated amounts, and 
therefore shows how much should be added to estimates based on indicator cards 
tojind the actual evaporation necessary for a required amount of work in a 
given engine. The H. P. of the engine, the total initial pressure above 
vacuum in the cylinder, the total rate of expansion, and the superheat are 
given, as the figures can only be used under similar conditions. 

TABLE NO. 46. 

Table Illustrating Cylinder Condensation and Entrainment. 

E. D. M. 



IIiND OF Engine. 



Porter-Allen, not jacketed- 
Cornish, steam jacketed- 



Reynolds Corliss, not jacketed, cond'j 
" " non-condensing — 

Harris-Corliss, no jacket, condensing 
" " " non-condensing 

Wheelock, '' condensing 

" " non-condensing 

Corliss, steam jacket, condensing -- 

Hirn, no jacket, condensing 



Cornish, steam jacket, condensing- - 
Woolf Comp'd Cond'g, steam jacket 

nojacket--- 

*' " Pump'g En, st'm jckt 

Woolf Comp'd Marine, steam in jckt. 

" " no jacket- — 

Same Eng, 2d cyl. only, steam jacket 

" " " no jacket 

Receiver Comp'd Marine, steam jckt. 
Marine Cond'g, i cylinder, no jacket 

Single Cylinder, f no jacket 

American, | steam in jar-ket — 

Marine, J no jacket 



Condensing, 
Condensing, 
Condensing, 



steam in jacket--. 

no jacket- 

.steam in jacket--. 



ixo 

c 

UJ 



66. 

]21.6 

149 5 

]U0.7 

217 

165.0 

138.7 

167.4 

135.8 

]60.4 

141.8 

418.3 

142.4 

134.6 

111.6 

106.3 

101.8 

46.2 

27.8 

118.4 

96.3 

72.9 

78.0 

69.4 

217.6 

201.1 

204.7 

88.7 

96.5 

185.8 

171.8 

249.5 

283.1 






H 



76 
34 
27 
36 
40 

101 

105 

105 

104 

1<3 

103 
35 
(50 
54 
66 
t5 
33 
51 
48 
36 
90.6 
89.7 
78.2 
89.0 
66.2 
67.6 
45.1 
24.5 
25.2 
53.2 
53.5 
79.2 
82.3 



c/) 



35.5= F 

None. 



150°F. 
None. 
85T. 
None. 



6.34 
3.62 
2.81 
3.66 
3.65 
6.83 
5.57 
7.39 
6.55 
6.64 
5.23 
4.69 
3.75 
3.75 
5.84 
6.84 
6.85 
11.59 
14.73 
11.35 
7.68 
7.15 
9.49 
8.25 
5.12 
3.17 
3.47 
1.76 
1.75 
3 83 
4.01 
5.41 
5.19 



kS £ "OX 



Pounds Water p. 'Differ'ce. 
H. P. p. hour. Per Cent. 



24.69 
16.76 
18.59 
14.23 
16.70 
16.67 
21.49 
15.83 
21.02 
15.26 
20.80 
14.51 
IH.42 
18.14 
14.20 
14.42 
22.06 
17.62 
21.44 
17.19 
16.15 
15.48 
18.08 
18.71 
18.44 
18.02 
20.79 
27.66 
29.27 
19.24 
18.27 
16.95 
16.88 



<^ 



25.81 

20.72 

21.38 

18 82 

20.08 

20.37 

23.07 

19. 15 

23.68 

19.22 

21.61 

17.4 

17.2 

22.41 

16.16 

19.93 

22.94 

22.32 

32.72 

22.62 

21.72 

23.34 

27.09 

30 32 

20.24 

26.5.3 

28.09 

42.27 

37.34 

25.93 

21.86 

23.80 

21.12 



~ :: r- C 

>, ^ c « 



4.5% 
19.2% 
13.( % 
21 4% 
16.9% 
18.2% 

6.8% 
17.3% 
11.2% 
20.6% 
15.4% 
20.0% 

4.4% 
19.1% 
12.1% 
27.6% 

4.0% 
26.6^ 
52.6% 
31.6% 
34.5% 
50.7% 
49.8% 
62.0% 

9.8% 
47.2% 
35.1% 
52.8% 
20.8% 
34.7% 
19.6% 
40.5% 
25.1% 



63 



We see then that a calculation of water consumption from indicator 
cards may be anywhere from 4 per cent, to 62 per cent, out of the way. 

We note further that superheating may counteract on the average all 
but 7 per cent, of the loss by moisture ; careful lagging and good boilers 
may reduce it to 11.2 per cent, in the best of non-condensing engines ; steam 
jackets in condensing engines may limit it to an average of 22.5 per cent., 
while in unjacketed condensing engines we may expect an average of 36.8 
per cent. 

Here again the land boilers show their advantage over the marine types. 
The average loss in steam jacketed land engines is 19.46 per cent, against 
20.6 per cent, for the same type of marine engines ; without jackets the land 
practice shows 21 per cent, loss against 46.1 per cent, for marine. It is 
evident that this discrepancy is in the boilers, and not in the engines, since 
marine engines are even more carefully built than land engines. 

In specifying horizontal tubular or return tubular boilers for their work, 
careful engineers insist that the steam shall contain not more than 2 per cent, 
(sometimes 3 per cent.) of entrained water. This is considered good work 
for that type of boiler, and ample heating surface, and large liberating 
area and steam space are necessary to attain it. 

Well designed water tube boilers give much better results. Several 
well authenticated tests of Heine Safety Boilers record entrainments as low 
as 1-8 of 1 per cent., and 1-2 of 1 per cent, when forcing 50 per cent, above 
rating, and from 1-12 of 1 per cent, entrainment to 1-7 of 1 per cent, super- 
heat at rating. Here then is a cnance for economy in the engine gained by 
the boiler in addition to its own economy in fuel. E. D. M. 

The Rating of Boilers. 

R. H. T. 

It is considered usually advisable to assume a set of practically attaina- 
ble conditions in average good practice, and to take the power so obtainable 
as the measure of the power of the boiler in commercial and engineering 
transactions. The unit generally assumed has been usually the weight of 
steam demanded per horse power per hour by a fairly good steam engine. 
This magnitude has been gradually decreasing from the earliest period of the 
history of the steam engine. In the time of Watt, one cubic foot of water 
per hour was thought fair ; at the middle of the present century, ten pounds 
of coal was a usual figure, and five pounds, commonly equivalent to about 
forty pounds of feed water evaporated, was allowed the best engines. After 
the introduction of the modern forms of engine, this last figure was reduced 
25 per cent., and the most recent improvements have still further lessened 
the consumption of fuel and of steam. By general consent the unit has now 
become thirty pounds of dry steam per horse power per hour, which repre- 
sents the performance of good non-condensing mill engines. Large engines, 
with condensers and compounded cylinders, will do still better. A committee 
of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers recommended thirty 
pounds as the unit of boiler power, and this is now generally accepted. They 
advised that the commercial horse power be taken as an evaporation of jo 
p07inds of water per hour from a feed water temperature of ioo° Fahrenheit 

64 




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into steam at yo pou?ids gauge pressure, which may be considered to be equal 
to 34J units of evaporation, that is, to 34J pounds of water evaporated from 
a feed water temperature of 212° Fahrenheit into steam at the same tempera- 
ture. This standard is equal to 33,305 British thermal units per hour. 

It was the opinion of this committee that a boiler rated at any stated 
power should be capable of developing that power with easy firing, moder- 
ate draught, and ordinary fuel, while exhibiting good economy, and at least 
one-third more than its rated power to meet emergencies. 





Heine Safety Boiler Co.'s Factory, 
PHOENIXVILLE, PA. 

The Energy Stored in Steam Boilers. 

R. H. T. 

A steam boiler is not only an apparatus by means of which the potential 
energy of chemical afifmity is rendered actual and available, but it is also a 
storage reservoir, or a magazine, in which a quantity of such energy is tem- 
porarily held; and this quantity, always enormous, is directly proportional to 
the weight of water and of steam which the boiler at the time contains. The 
energy of gunpowder is somewhat variable, but a cubic foot of heated water 
under ^ pressure of 60 or 70 lbs. per square inch has about the same energy 
as one pound of gunpowder. At a low red heat water has about 40 times 
this amount of energy. Following are presented the weights of steam and of 
water contained in each of the more common forms of steam boilers, the 
total and relative amounts of energy confined in each under the usual condi- 
tions of working in every day practice, and their relative destructive power 
in case of explosion : 

66 



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67 




Boiler Room U. S. Navy Yard, 

NEW YORK, N. Y. 
Two 80 H. P. Heine Boilers. 



The stored available energy in water tube boilers is usually less than 
that of any of the other stationary boilers, and not very far from the amount 
stored, pound for pound, by the plain tubular boiler, the best of the older 
forms. It is evident that their admitted safety from destructive explosion does 
not come from this relation, however, but from the division of the contents 
into small portions, and especially from those details of construction which 
make it tolerably certain that any rupture shall be local. A violent explosion 
can only come of the general disruption of a boiler and the liberation at once 
of large masses of steam and water. 




The Mallinckrodt Building, St. Louis, Mo., 
Contains 300 H. P. Heine Boilers. 



Heating Buildings by Steam. 

In heating buildings by steam we have two things to consider. First, 
the amount of fresh air entering the building per hour which has to be heated 
from the external to the desired internal temperature, and second, the amount 
of heat to be supplied to take the place of what is lost by conduction through 
walls, windows, roofs, ceilings and doors and thence by radiation and convec- 
tion to the outer air. 

It is generally customary to assume the air to be warmed as entering 
the house at 0° F., and in the United States the rule is to require an interior 
temperature of 70° F. The weight of 1 cu. ft. of air at 0° F. is 0.086 lbs ; its 
specific heat at constant pressure is 0.2377 (see Table No. 7). Therefore, 
to raise 1 cu. ft. of air at 0° F. one degree in temperature, we require 
0.08G X 0.2377 = 0.02 H. U. To bring it from 0° to 70° will take 1.4 H. U. 
This of course is true only when the air is measured at the inlet opening ; 
for as it grows warmer it expands and a cu. ft. weighs less. 

The amount of heat required to replace that dissipated through the ex- 
posed surfaces of the building can be figured from the following diagram^ 
Table No. 48, which has been prepared by Mr. Alfred R. Wolff, M. E. It is 
**the graphical interpretation, in American units, of the practice and 
coefficients prescribed by law by the German Government in the design 
of the heating plants of its public buildings, and generally used in 
Germany for all buildings." Mr. Wolff has checked the coefficients by 
examples of good American practice, and found satisfactory agreement in the 
results. 



\ 



69 



110 



100 



90 



80 



70 



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50 



40 



30 



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10°20"30°40"S0°60°70°8Ci:90:ir° 

Faihrenhellr. 



120 140 160 160 



90 100 

HeilTransira]red,inBriTish^^ 
lJhirs,per8q[iiareFoorof 8urface,per Hour, 



70 



The formula for the loss is Q =SxKx(/ — /o). 

K is the loss by transmission in B. T. U. per hour per square foot of 
outer surface, per degree F. difference in temperature on the two sides. 

^'the number of square feet of transmitting surface, /the interior, and 
/o the exterior temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, of the air. 

The values of K are given in the following table * 

Table No. 4o 

A. R. W. 

For each square foot of brick wall of thickness : 



Thickness of brick wall^ 


4" 


8" 


12" 


16" 


20" 


24" 


28" 


32" 


36" 


40" 


A = 


0.68 


0.46 


0.32 


0.26 


0.23 0.20 


0.174 


0.15 


0.129 0.115 

1 



1 square foot, wooden beam construction, \ as flooring, A^= 0.083 

planked over, or ceiled : J as ceiling, K^ 0.104 

1 square foot, fireproof construction, 1 as flooring, K= 0.124 

floored over : J as ceiling, K= 0.145 

1 square foot, single window K^ 0.776 

1 square foot, single skylight K^ 1.118 

1 square foot, double window K^= 0.518 

1 square foot, double skylight K= 0.621 

1 square foot, door K= 0.414 



These coefficients are to be increased respectively, as follows: 

Ten per cent, where the exposure is a northerly one and winds are to 
be counted on as important factors. 

Ten per cent, when the building is heated during the daytime only, and 
the location of the building is not an exposed one. 

Thirty per cent, when the building is heated during the daytime only, 
and the location of the building is exposed. 

Fifty per cent, when the building is heated during the winter months 
intermittently, with long intervals (say days or weeks) of non-heating. 

In using this table it is necessary to know the conditions as to tempera- 
ture of adjoining buildings having the same party-wall and of the different 
stories, cellar, attic, etc., of the building to be heated. Then with the plans 
of the building at hand the total square feet of each kind of surface can be 
measured and the estimate rapidly made from the diagram, Table No. 48, as 
follows : 

Find the difference in temperatures / — h on the lower horizontal line ; 
run up the vertical line thus found until it intersects the diagonal line repre- 
senting the kind of surface ; follow the horizontal line to the left and read on 
the vertical scale the value of K {t—to). 

F. i., 70° required in the room, temperature of adjoining hallway being 
10°. Find difference 60°. The division wall being 24" ; run up on the 60° 
line to the diagonal for 24" wall, then follow the horizontal line to the left 
and you fmd 12 H. U. as the value of K (/ — h). Suppose there is a door in 
the wall ; the G0° line strikes it midway between 24 and 26 on the vertical 
scale, hence we have 25 H. U. for every square foot of door. 



71 










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For the amount of air which should be admitted to each room, Morin 
gives 

TABLE No. 50. 

Cubic feet of air required for ventilation per head per hour. 

Hospitals, ordinary maladies 2470 

Hospitals, wounded, etc 3530 

Hospitals, in times of epidemic 5300 

Theatres 1585 

Assembly rooms, prolonged sittings 2120 

Prisons 1760 

Workshops, ordinary 2120 

Workshops, insalubrious conditions 3530 

Barracks, day 1060, at night 1760 

Infant schools 706 

Adult schools 1410 

Stables 7060 

Having determined the total number of H. U. required for each room, 
the kind and quantity of the radiating surface is next to be determined. 

The character of the surfaces determines their efficiency. 

Mr. P. Kaeuffer, M. E., of Mayence, Germany, has made a number of 
careful experiments on radiating surfaces, the results of which, recalculated 
for American units, we give in 

TABLE No. 51. 

Transmission of heat by radiating surfaces, per square foot per hour in B.T.U. 

Smooth vertical plane 406 

Vertical plane with about 80% surface in ribs or corrugations 170 

Smooth vertical pipe surface 480 

Vertical tube with 67% of surface in corrugations 221 

Horizontal smooth tube or pipe 369 

Horizontal tube with 67% of surface in corrugations 185 

Note. — This table is correct for steam of 15 to 22 pounds pressure ; for exhaust 
steam reduce in proportion to temperature, except for corrugated and ribbed surfaces, 
which lose very rapidly for low steam temperatures. For hot water, 50 per cent, of the 
tabular numbers are approximately correct. 

Approximately (for St. Louis conditions) 9 feet of 1" pipe with exhaust 
steam, or 6 feet of 1" pipe with 50 pounds steam, will heat 1000 cubic feet 
of air 70° per hour. 

French practice is about 1 square foot of radiating surface for 230 cubic 
feet of space for exhaust steam. This is about 13 feet run of 1" pipe for 
1000 cubic feet of space. 

Mr. Wolff gives 250 H. U.per hour per square foot surface for ordinary 
bronzed cast iron radiators, and 400 H. U. for non-painted radiating surfaces, 
counting steam pressure from 3 to 5 pounds per square inch. (About 60% 
of these amounts for hot water heating.) When the total number of heat 
units required are known the work of the boiler can be directly estimated 
from them ; bearing in mind that if the water condensed in the radiators is 
returned to the boiler at 212°, we have in each pound of exhaust steam 965.8 
heat units available, in steam of 2 pounds, 5 pounds, or 10 pounds gauge 
pressure, we have 967.5 H. U., 969.7 H. U., or 974.1 H. U. respectively 
per pound of steam delivered to the system. 

73 



As we have seen by Table No- 51, the effectiveness of radiating sur- 
faces varies too much to make it the basis of the amount of boiler power 
required. Still, for rough approximations it is so used ; some experts esti- 
mate a square foot of boiler-heating surface for every 7 or 10 square feet of 
radiating surface; some go as far as 1 to 15. Mr. Kaeuffer's estimates are 
for about 1 square foot of boiler H. S. for 6 square feet of the best and 18 
square feet of the poorest radiating surface. (See Table 51.) In roughly 
estimating from the cubical contents of buildings, we must observe that 
small buildings, having proportionately more exposed wall and window sur- 
face per 1000 cubic feet of contents, require proportionately more boiler 
power. And as the amount of ventilation necessary depends on the nature 
of the use of the building, this also affects the amount of boiler power 
required. 

Table No. 52. 

Approximate Number of Cubic Feet which 1 H. P. 

in Boiler will Heat. 

Hospitals, exposition buildings, etc., with much window 

surface 6000 to 8000 

Dwellings, stores, small shops, etc 8000 to 12000 

Foundries, large workshops, etc 8000 to 16000 

Theaters, schools, prisons, churches, etc 10000 to 18000 

Armories, gymnasiums, etc 15000 to 25000 

The remarks about increase in the value of K under Table No. 49 apply 
directly to increase in boiler power for similar conditions. 



Heating Liquids by Steam. 

Liquids may be heated by blowing the steam into them through a num- 
ber of small openings, or by passing the steam through a coil of pipe sub- 
merged in the liquid, or by passing the steam through an external casing. In 
the former case dilution results, and any impurities in the steam of course 
enter into and foul the liquid. The latter two methods are therefore more 
frequently adopted in practice. In heating water, it is found that the work 
done per unit of surface and temperature is greatly increased when boiling 
begins and evaporation takes place, even though the difference in temperature 
be less. In this connection the experiments of Thos. Craddock are interest- 
ing. A velocity of 3 feet per second of the water doubled the rate of trans- 
mission in still water ; he found that this circulation became more valuable 
as the difference in temperatures became less. 

The following table by Mr. Thos. Box illustrates this point. When 
evaporation had set in and caused circulation, the effectiveness of the surfaces 
was trebled^ although the difference of temperature was only one-third of 
that in the still water, an apparent nine-fold increase. 

74 



Table no. 53. 



Table of Experiments on the Power of Steam Cased Vessels 
and Steam Pipes in Heating Water. 



Box. 



Temperature of the 
water heated. 


Temp, 
of the 


Difference of 
Temperature of 


Units per sq. ft. per hr. for 
1^ difference of temp. 






By Experiment. 


By Table. 






Maxi- 
mum. 


Mean. 






Mini- 
mum. 


Steam. 


Steam and Water. 


Units. 


Mean. 


Units. 


Mean. 




Deg. 

65 
60 

69 

39 
46 

* 


Deg. 
110 

102^ 
]09>^ 

212 
212 


Deg. 



212 
212 


Deg. 

212 
212 
212 

274 
274 

274 
250 


Deg. Deg. 

147 to 202 
152 to 1093^ 
143 to 102>^ 

235 to 62 
228 to 62 

62 
38 


230^ 

207 } 
210 J 

335 \ 
315/ 

974 \ 
1020/ 


216 

325 
997 


r 216^ 

r 3251 
\ 333/ 

/1000\ 
11000/ 


216 

329 
1000 


r Vertical tube. 
i Vertical tube. 
I Vertical tube, 
r Steam cased 
< ves>-el. 
[ Worm. 
r Worm. . 
\ Worm. 


* 













*XoTE — These t%vo results were evaporation of water already at 212° F., the precedingf one 
show^ing that only about one -third as much heat was transmitted in healing still water. 

A remarkable fact was noted in some experiments in this line by Mr. 
B. G. Nichol, in 1875, namely, that a horizontal position of the pipe was 
more effective than a vertical one. This is the reverse of what is found in 
heating air. (Compare Table No. 51, Kaeuffer.) 

Safety Valves. 

It was formerly the custom to proportion the Safety Valves according to 
the heating surface. But as the performance per square foot of H. S. varies 
widely in different boilers (from 2 to 15 lbs. hourly evaporation), the wiser 
plan of giving the safety valves a fixed ratio to the grate area has been 
adopted. 

The United States Treasury Department, through its Board of Super- 
vising Inspectors of Steam Vessels has established the following rules: 

"Lever safety valves to be attached to marine boilers shall have an area 
of not less than one square inch to two sqicare feet of grate surface in the 
boiler, and the seats of all such safety valves shall have an angle of inclina- 
tion of 45° to the center line of their axes. 

"The valves shall be so arranged that each boiler shall have one sepa- 
rate safety valve, unless the arrangement is such as to preclude the possibility 
of shutting off the communication of any boiler with the safety valve, or 
valves employed. This arrangement shall also apply to lock-up safety 
valves when they are employed. 

**Any spring-loaded safety valves constructed so as to give an increased 
lift by the operation of steam, after being raised from their seats, or any 
spring-loaded safety valve constructed in any other manner, or so as to give 
an effective area equal to that of the afore-mentioned spring-loaded safety 
valve, may be used in lieu of the common lever-weighted valves on all 
boilers on steam vessels, and all such spring-loaded safety valves shall be 
required to have an area of not less than one square inch to three square 
feet of grate surface of the boiler, and each spring-loaded safety valve shall 



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be supplied with a lever that will raise the valve from its seat a distance of 
not less than that equal to one-eighth the diameter of the valve opening, and 
the seats of all such safety valves shall have an angle of inclination to the 
center line of their axis of 45°. But in no case shall any spring-loaded safety 
valve be used in lieu of the lever-weighted safety valve without having first 
been approved by the Board of Supervising Inspectors." 

This rule, so far as it applies to lever-weighted safety valves, is identical 
with the Board of Trade Rule of Great Britain. 

It has, however, the one defect that it takes no account of the pressure 
carried. And a safety valve of correct size for 50 lbs. pressure would be 
more than three times too large for 200 lbs. pressure, and may become a 
source of danger. 

The Philadelphia Boiler Law takes this into account and orders that 
the 'Meast aggregate area of safety valve (being the least sectional area for 
the discharge of steam) to be placed upon all stationary boilers with natural 
or chimney draft, may be expressed by the formula 

^ _ 22.5 G 
P + 8.62 

in which A is the area of combined safety valves in inches. G is area of 

grate in square feet. P is pressure of steam in pounds per square inch to be 

carried in the boiler above the atmosphere. The following table gives the 

results of the formula for one square foot of grate as applied to boilers used 

at different pressures. 

Table No. 54. 

Pressure per Square Inch. 



10 
1.21 



20 
0.79 



30 
0.58 



40 
0.46 



50 

0.38 



60 
0.33 



70 
0.29 



80 
0.25 



90 
0.23 



100 
0.21 



110 
19 



120 I 150 
0.170.142 



175 
0.123 



I. 

\ 



Valve area in square inches, corresponding to one square foot of grate. 

Horse-Power and Steam Consumption of Pumping Engines. 

Multiply the number of million gallons pumped per 24 hours by the total 
head (including suction head), expressed either in feet or in pounds. This 
product multiplied by 0.176 if the head is stated in feet, or by 0.405 if the 
head is given in pounds, will be the horse-power of work done by the water 
end, or the horse-power of the water column. Thus f. i., a 15 million gallon 
engine with 260 ft. total head does 15x260x0.176 = 686.4 horse-power; 
and a 15 million gallon engine raising water against a total pressure of 110 
lbs. does 15x110x0.405 = 668.3 horse-power. It is the universal practice 
among engineers to express the economic efficiency of a pumping engine by 
what is called its ^^ duty,''' i. e. the number of millions of foot pounds of 
work it will do for every hundred pounds of coal burned under the boilers. 

Generally specifications base the duty to be guaranteed on an assumed 
evaporation of 10:1 or state that for every 1000 lbs. of steam (measured by 
the boiler feed-water) such duty is to be given. 

Either method fails to define where the duty of the boiler ends and that 
of the engine begins, since neither states from what temperature of feed to 
what pressure of steam the boilers are to evaporate. 

By the established practice among mechanical engineers, boiler per- 
formances are compared as to economy on the basis of evaporation from and 



77 



at 212° F. In the absence of any specific statement the assumed evaporation 
of 10 to 1 would, therefore, be thus construed, and as this is about the best 
performance that can be safely counted on per pound of best coal, it virtually 
becomes the basis of calculation. 

A pumping engine of 100 million duty will require 19.8 lbs. feed-water 
per hour per horse-power of work in water column, based on an evaporation 
of 10 lbs. water per pound of coal from and at 212° F. 

Bui as pumping engines are constructed for steam pressures varying 
from 75 lbs. for high pressure single cylinder engines to 175 pounds for 
triple expansion ; and as the feed-water may be, say 100° F. the temperature 
of the hot well, or 212° F. from a good exhaust heater, the amount of feed- 
water required by the engine per horse-power per hour will vary according 
to these conditions. 

The higher the steam pressure the greater the amount of energy avail- 
able in each pound of steam. The lower the feed temperature the larger the 
proportion of the boiler's work which had to be expended in merely heating 
the water up to the boiling-point. On this basis the following table has 
been figured : 

Table No. 55. 

Showing Lbs. Feed-Water per Horse-power required by 
Pumping Engines per Hour. 

E. D. M. 



Duty. 



From Feed at 212° F. to Steam of: 



75 lbs. 100 lbs. 125 lbs. 150 lbs. 175 lbs 



From Feed at 100° F. to Steam of: 



75 lbs. 100 lbs. 125 lbs. 150 lbs. ,175 lbs. 



Equivalent 

to Boiler 

Work in 

U.ofE.,or 

Pounds 

from andat 

212° F. 



110 Mill. 
100 Mill 

90 Mill. 

80 Mill, 

70 Mill. 

60 Mill. 

60 Mill. 



17.37 
19.11 
21.23 
23.90 
27.30 
31.85 
38.22 



17.30 
19.03 
21.14 
23.80 
27.19 
31.71 
38.06 



17.23 
18.95 
21.06 
23.70 

27.07 
31.58 
37.90 



17.16 
18.87 
20.97 
23.60 
26.96 
31.45 
37.74 



17.09 
18.80 
20.88 
23.50 
26 86 
31.33 
37.60 



15 64 
17.20 
19.11 
21.50 
24.57 
28.67 
34.40 



15, 
17, 
19, 
21, 
24. 
28, 
34, 



57 
12 
02 
40 
46 
53 
24 



15.50 
17.05 
18.94 
21.31 
24.36 
28.42 
34.10 



15 44 
16.98 
18.87 
21.22 
24.26 
28.30 



15, 
16, 
18, 
21, 
24. 
28, 
33, 



38 
92 
80 
15 
17 
20 
84 



18.00 
19.80 
22.00 
24.75 
28.29 
33.00 
39.60 



Note. The h.orse-power is the H. P. of the water column. The evaporation is 
assumed at 10 lbs. water from and at 212° F. per lb. of coal. 

Economy in boilers is always stated in '^pounds of water evaporated from 
and at ^Vl° F. per pound of fuel,' ^ designated as ""Units of Evaporation.^^ 
(See Vol. VI, Transactions Am. Soc. M. E.— 1881). 

Unless a contract specifically provides otherwise the '''assumed evapora- 
tion'' is to be so understood. 

The last vertical column of the table gives the equivalent work for the 
boiler in each case per horse-power of the water column ; in fact, all the 
figures in each horizontal line are exact equivalents of each other. Again, 
comparing the vertical columns with each other it is clear that an engine pro- 



78 



vided with a first-class feed- water heater will save 11.1% over the same 
engine relying simply on its hot well. 

Given an assumed evaporation per pound of such coal as the guarantee 
is based on ; or the evaporation found by actual test of the boilers. Divide 
the figure in the last vertical column by such evaporation, and you have 
the number of pounds of the coal per horse-power in each case. 

E. D. M. 

Condensers. 
H. R. w. 

When steam expands in the cylinder of a steam engine, its pressure 
gradually reduces, and ultimately becomes so small that it cannot profitably 
be used for driving the piston. At this stage a time has arrived when the 
attenuated vapor should be disposed of by some method, so as not to exert 
any back pressure or resistance to the return of the piston. If there were 
no atmospheric pressure, exhausting into the open air would effect the desired 
object. But, as there is in reality a pressure of about 14.7 pounds per 
square inch, due to the weight of the super-incumbent atmosphere, it follows 
that steam in a non-condensing engine cannot economically be expanded be- 
low this pressure, and must eventually be exhausted against the atmos- 
phere, which exerts a back pressure to that extent. 

It is evident that if this back pressure be removed, the engine will not 
only be aided, by the exhausting side of the piston being relieved of a resis- 
tance of 14.7 pounds per square inch, but moreover, as the exhaust or release 
of the steam from the engine cylinder will be against no pressure, the steam 
can be expanded in the cylinder quite, or nearly, to absolute of pressure, 
and thus its full expansive power can be obtained. 

Contact, in a closed vessel, with a spray of cold water or with one side 
of a series of tubes, on the other side of which cold water is circulating, de- 
prives the steam of nearly all its latent heat, and condenses it. In either 
case the act of condensation is almost instantaneous. A change of state oc- 
curs, and the vapor steam is reduced to liquid water. As this water of con- 
densation only occupies about one sixteen-hundredths of the space filled by 
the steam from which it was formed, it follows that the remainder of the 
space is void or vacant, and no pressure exists. Now, the expanded steam 
from the engine is conducted into this empty or vacuous space, and, as it 
meets with no resistance, the very limit of its usefulness is reached. 

The vessel in which this condensation of steam takes place is the con- 
densing chamber. The cold water that produces the condensation is the in- 
jection water; and the heated water, on leaving the condenser is the dis- 
charge water. 

To make the action of the condensing apparatus continuous, the flow of 
the injection water, and the removal of the discharge water including the 
water from the liquifaction of the steam, must likewise be continuous. 

The vacuum in the condenser is not quite perfect, because the cold in- 
jection water is heated by the steam, and emits a vapor of a tension due to 
the temperature. When the temperature is no degrees Fahrenheit, the 
tension or pressure of the vapor will be represented by about 4" of mercury ; 
that is, when the mercury in the ordinary barometer stands at 30", a barom' 
eter with the space above the mercury communicating with the condenser, 

73 




Cape Town Tramways Co., Limited, 
CAPE TOWN, AFRICA. 
900 H. P. of Heine Boilers. 



will stand at about 26". The imperfection of vacuum is not wholly tracea- 
ble to the vapor in the condenser, but also to the presence of air, a small 
quantity of which enters with the injection water and with the steam ; the 
larger part, however, comes through air leaks and faulty connections and 
badly packed stuffing boxes. The air would gradually accumulate until it 
destroyed the vacuum, if provision were not made to constantly withdraw it, 
together with the heated water, by means of a pump. 

The amount of water required to thoroughly condense the steam from 
an engine is dependent upon two conditions : the total heat and volume of 
the steam, and the temperature of the injection water. The former repre- 
sents the work to be done, and the latter the value of the water by whose 
cooling agency the work of condensation of the steam is to be accomplished. 
Generally stated, with 26" vacuum, the injection water at ordinary tempera- 
ture, not exceeding 70 degrees Fahrenheit, from 20 to 30 times the quantity 
of water evaporated in the boilers will be required for the complete liquifac- 
tion of the exhaust steam. The efficiency of injection water decreases very 
rapidly as its temperature increases, and at 80 degrees and 90 degrees 
Fahrenheit, very much larger quantities are to be employed. Under the 
conditions of common temperature of water and a vacuum of 26" of mercury, 
the injection water necessary per H. P. developed by the engine, will be 
from IJ gallons per minute when the steam admission is for one-fourth of the 
stroke, up to 2 gallons per minute when the steam is carried three-fourths ol 
the stroke of the engine. 



The power exerted by a steam engine during a single stroke of a piston, 
is due directly to the difference between the pressures on the opposite sides 
of the piston. Newton said, ''all force is vis atergo;^' — a push from be- 
hind. A vacuum does not in itself give power. It only effects a removal of 
resistance from the retreating side of the piston, and consequently adds just 
so much activeness to the other, or pushing side. The value of a vacuum of 
26" of mercury to an engine, may be generally approximated by considering 
it to be equivalent to a net gain of 12 lbs. average pressure per square inch 
of piston area. It is obvious that this amount of power gained bears nearly 
the same ratio to the power developed by the engine when non-condensing, 
as 12 lbs. does to the mean effective, or average pressure of the steam in the 
cylinder. So, if the mean effective pressure is known, a close idea of the 
percentage of gain that will be derived by the use of a vacuum with a non- 
condensing engine, may be arrived at. 

By the use of Watt's formula, in which, 
A = Area of piston in square inches. 
V = Velocity of piston in feet per minute. 

M. E. P. = Mean effective pressure of the steam in pounds per square 
inch on the piston. 

AXVXM.E.P. „ ^ 

■ 33000 = Horsepower. 

And by substituting 12 for M. E. P., the value of vacuum of 12 lbs. ex- 
pressed in horse power is found. 

AxVxl2 
' " — QQnr>r> — ^^ Horse power made available by vacuum. 

81 



Table of Mean Effective Pressures. 

The following graphical table will afford a ready and comprehensive 
means of ascertaining the mean effective pressure of steam in an engine 
cylinder when the initial steam pressure and point of cut-off, or the number 
of expansions of the steam, are known. 

It should be borne in mind that '* absolute pressure" is calculated from 
the absolute vacuum of the barometer, while " gauge pressure " as indicated 
by the ordinary pressure gauge, begins with atmospheric pressure as its zero; 
consequently "absolute pressure" is nearly 15 pounds greater than " gauge 
pressure." 

TABLE No. 56. 



Mean Effective Pressures. 


o 
noaOf expansions " 


in 





B » 


«• 


^ 


2 "■ 


00 


rJ <c 


^ 


•& 


CO N 


J 


111111111111 1 1 IS J_ 52S| 
POINTS OF CUT OFF so 25 20 18 16 14 12 10 9 8 7 "6 E 4 SB T" ST ♦FUll| 


200 
1.90 
ISO 

170 
J 60 
150 
140 

CO 

h 

S120 

HI 

(0 
Ul 

SlOO 

J 
< 

K 90 
z 

uj 80 
d 

S 70 
< 

60 
50 
40 
30 
20 
10 


/ / //// / MEAN^EFFECTIVEPRESS^dfiE IN POUNDS / / / // / / \ 
10 fO 30/ 40/ 50/ 60 hd 80 /90/1OO/IIO 12o' 130 140 150 160 Mp 180 /<ir>/im \ 
















/ 


v\ 


/ 


/ 


/ 




/ 


/ 


/ 




/ 






/ 








/ 




/ 








/ 









^ 


f 


/ 


















1 


1: 


\ 


/ 


/ 


/ 




/ 




r 




f 




/ 


f 






/ 


r 


/ 








y 






/ 


^A 


/ 


/ 














i- 


/- 


II 




1 




/ 


/ 




/ 


/ 




/ 






/ 








/ 


/ 








/ 






/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 














' 






^ , 


r 




/ 


/ 




/ 




y 


f 






/ 




/ 






/ 


/ 




/ 


/< 


/ 


/ 




! 1 
















' 1 , 






y 






t 




/ 


/ 






/ 






J 




/ 








y 






*/ 


/ 


/ 
















n 




/ / 


/ 


1 


/ 








/ 


f 


f 




/ 








/ 


/ 








/ 




/ 




/ 


/ 


















/ / 


/ 




'y 






1 


1 


/ 






f 






/ 


I 


f 






/ 




/ 


/y 




/ 


















'/ 


1 


1 


/ 




1 




1 


/ 




/ 






/ 




/ 






/ 




/ 


^ 


/ 


/ 


















/ 1 


1 




/ 




1 






1 


/ 








f 


/ 






/ 




/ 


^/ 


/ 


/ 


















1 1 


1 , 


1 


> 


t 






1 




/ 






/' 


/ 






/ 


' 


4 


^ 


y 


/ 












''/ 




1 


// 


f 


/ 




1 




/ 








/ 


A 


/ 






/ 




/^ 


/ 


/ 














/ 




1 j 


7 


1 


i 


1 


1 


/ 








/ 




/ 






/ 




// 


/ 


/ 










, / 


/, 




1 


7 


1 


1 


1 




/ 








/ 


/ 






/ 






y 


/ 












/ 


/ 




I 


// 


1 


1 


1 


J 


' 


f 
J 




/ 


/ 






/ 






V 


/ 












/ 


/'/, 




1 1 


f/i 


7 


i 




/ 




/ 


/ 


4 


f 




/ 






V 


/ 










/ 








1 ' 


/ 


/ 


/ 


J 




/ 




/' 


/ 




y 




A 


V 


/ 










/ 








1 1 


7> 




f 


/ 




/ 




// 




J 




/' 


(/ 


/ 










', 








L 


// 


/ 


/ 




/ 




y> 


f 


/ 


/ 


/* 


^ 


/ 










/ 








11 


f f 


f 


/ 


J 


r 




^/ 




/ 


/' 


^ 


4 










/j 


// 






1 1 


11 


/ 




/ 






/ 


/ 


,^ 


^ 








// 








1 1 


' 1 


/ 


/ 


\ 


/ 




^ 


^ A 


<^ 


/ 








illi 


// 






ll 


1/ 




/ 









/ 


y/A 


'/ 










ll 








1 1 


1 


/ 






/ 


y 




y/ 
















y 


J 




/ 




/ 


/ 




/' 








In 








Q- 


/ 


i 


A 


y 


/ 
















UtLL 








A 


f 


/ 
/ 


A. 




1 






i 






f J 


/ J 








mm 


i 






% 


f 






w 


1 






1 








^ 




i 










125 60 .40 30 25 .20 17 15 13 12 11 10 

PER CENT OF POWER GAINED BY VACUUM 





(From Special Catalogue of The Worthington Condenser.) 

The left hand vertical column of figures gives the initial (absolute) 
steam pressure, and the upper horizontal row, the number of expansions 
that correspond to the several points of cut-off ; directly under this is a 
similar one of the mean effective pressures. 



82 



To determine the M. E. P. produced in an engine cylinder with an 
initial pressure of 90 pounds steam (gauge pressure), cut-off at one-quarter 
stroke, expanded and finally exhausted into a vacuum ; add 15 to 90, and find 
105 in the initial pressure column ; follow the horizontal line to the right 
until it intersects the oblique line which corresponds to J cut-off. Then read 
the M. E. P. from the row of figures directly above, which in this case is 63 
pounds. 

If, as in a non-condensing engine, the steam is exhausted against atmos- 
pheric pressure, this 63 pounds M. E. P. should be reduced by 15 pounds, 
giving 48 pounds as the net result.* 

By glancing down and reading on the lower scale the figures directly 

under the 48 pounds M. E. P. on the upper row, will be seen the percentage of 

power that a vacuum will add to an engine using 90 pounds "gauge pressure " 

steam, cut-off at one-quarter stroke. Thus, in this instance, the value of 

the vacuum is found to be between 25 and 30 per cent of the power of the 

engine when running non-condensing. 

H. R. W. 



*NOTE.— In condensing engines it will be safer to deduct from 3 to 5 pounds for 
imperfect vacuum, etc., and in non-condensing engines 16 to 18 pounds in place of 15 
for back pressure, etc. 

E. D. M. 




500 H. p. Heine Boiler ready for transportation. 



83 



Table No. $']. Results of 



where: made. 



MADE BY. 



COAIv USED. 





>. 












o 




rt 


a 


0. 


o 


rt 


u 


a 


Ph 


-0 


.— < 


OJ 


CB 




O 


Cfl 


u 


P^ 



9 
10 

11 

12 

13 
14 
15 

16 

17 
18 
19 

20 

21 

22 
23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 



Jas. Roy & Co., Troy, N. Y--- 

Orrs & Co., Troy, N. Y 

Central Park Apartment House, 

New York 

Beadleston & Woerz Brewery, 

New York 

N. Y. Edison Co. Station 

Kansas City W. W., Mo 

Ivcague Island Navy Yard, Phila- 
delphia, Pa 

New Britain Knitting Co., New 
Britain, Conn 

Warren Mfg. Co., Warren, R. I. 

Washington Market, Washing- 
ton, D. C 

Washington Market, Washing- 
ton, D. C 

Peerless Brick Co., Philadel- 
phia, Pa 

Walker Brewery, Cincinnati, O- 

Warren Mfg. Co., Warren, R. I. 

Memphis Water Works, Mem- 
phis, Tenn 

C. C. Washburn's Flour Mills, 
Minneapolis, Minn 

Toledo Traction Co., Toledo, O. 

Toledo Traction Co., Toledo, O. 

C. C. Washburn's Flour Mills, 
Minneapolis, Minn 

U. S. Dredge, Beta, Memphis, 
Tenn 

Chicago Athletic Association, 
Chicago, 111 

Chicago Edison Co., Chicago, 111. 

Edison Illuminating Co., St. 
Louis, Mo 

Laclede Eletric Light Station, 
St. Louis, Mo 

N. K. Fairbanks Co., St. Louis, 
Mo 

Cupples Building, St. Louis, Mo 

Mallinckrodt Building, St. Louis, 
Mo 

Mallinckrodt Chemical Works, 
St. Louis, Mo 



G. H. Barrus-- 
P. H. Baerman- 

J. J. DeKinder- 

J. J. DeKinder- 
R. H. Thurston 
W. E. Worthen 

U.S. N. Officials 

E. R. Fish 

Thos. Evans-- - 

J. J. DeKinder- 

J. J. DeKinder- 

J. J. DeKinder. 
G.H. Hornung- 
E. R. Fish 

J. J. DeKinder- 

Prof. W.A.Pike 

E. D. Ivy 

J. H. Monahan 

H. E. Smith- -- 

Wm. Gerig 

T. H. Nelson- - 
T. H. Nelson- - 

W. H. Bryan- - 

F. G. Schlosser 

C. E. Jones 

C. E. Jones 

W. H. Bryan- - 

W. B. Potter- -- 



Anthracite 

Anthracite — 

Anthracite 

Anthracite — 
Anthracite — 
Cumberland _ 

Cumberland - 

Cumberland - 
Cumberland - 

f Argyle, 

\ Cambria Co. 

r Argyle, 

\ Cambria Co. 

Clearfield 

New River 

New River 

Youghiogheny — 

Youghiogheny — 
Youghiogheny — 
Youghiogheny _ _ . 

Youghiogheny — 

Youghiogheny 

Big Muddy 

Big Muddy 

Carte^^ville 

Nut 

Vulcan 

Belleville 

Gillespie 

Collinsville 



Pa--- 
Pa-- 


180 
115 


Pa--- 


250 


Pa--- 


250 


Pa--- 


Z7S 


Md-- 


370 


Md-- 


240 


Md-- 
Md-- 


325 
325 


Pa--- 


250 


Pa--- 


250 


Pa--- 
Va.-. 
Va.- 


103 
169 

325 


Pa--- 


300 


Pa--- 
Pa--- 
Pa--- 


666 
455 
455 


Pa--- 


1040 


Pa--_ 


325 


I11-- 


150 
366 


111--- 


375 


111--- 


314 


I11-- 


300 
370 


111--- 


150 


111--- 


375 



This table comprises tests made with various grades of coal, varying greatly in 
their calorific values, and therefore the economic results vary between wide limits. For 
instance, the tests from 6 to 20 inclusive are made with bituminous and semibitumin- 
ous coals of the Eastern States, which are the best steam coals in the country, while 
tests 24 to 28 inclusive are made with the low grade coals of the Mississippi Valley. 



84 



I 



Tests of Heine Boilers. 











CO g 

> 2 






^ 


•d 

V 














O* 


W 


a 
o 
















ca o 


P. 


> 

V 






to 


t 


v 


TJ 


u - 




13 




>> 






3 






rt 


n! -M 


o^ 


a 

O 3 
O 

oP« 




<U 


O 

o , 

■J to 

^5 


tn 
tn 

)-■ 

a 


3 

U3 
tfl 

Ph 


"o 

a 

<u 


ounds of W 
pound of C 
at 212=. 


ounds of W 
sq, ft. H. 
from and a 


o P. 
tn J 

O !« 


P4 


O ft 


O dl 


PW 


CC 


« 


H 


^ 


Ph 


d, 


Pm 


W 


(l( 


Cfl 






o 



11.0 
12.0 

6.7 

9.0 
10.0 
13.0 

6.0 

8.0 
10.0 

6.07 

9.5 

8.0 

10.0 

6.0 

15.0 

9.0 
10.0 
10.0 

10.0 

9.0 

8.0 
6.0 

10.0 

10.0 

6.0 
9.0 

6.0 

10.0 



72. 
66. 

85. 

79. 
136. 
104. 

150. 

101. 
132. 

78. 

77. 

103. 
123. 
131. 

111. 

135. 
149. 
148. 

121. 

135. 

103. 
114. 

122. 

151. 

82. 
87. 

70. 

91. 



0.23 
0.55 

0.73 

0.34 
0.75 
0.80 

0.50 

0.90 
0.90 

0.72 

0.37 

0.13 
0.65 
0.70 

0.80 

0.75 
0.61 
0.47 

0.70 

0.50 

1.00 
1.08 

0.75 

0.80 

0.80 
0.87 

0.60 

0.62 



97.1 
32.0 

205.0 

42.0 

38.5 

131.0 

36.0 

191.0 
41.0 

74.1 

76.6 

77.0 
84.0 
40.0 

151.8 

111. 

37. 
36. 

51. 

77. 

82. 
72. 

66.0 

200. 

75. 
210. 

185. 

174. 



9.14 
9.79 


5.38 
5.94 


9.87 


4.65 


8.52 


4.80 


8.81 


4.27 


10.91 


5.03 


10.56 


6.66 


10.40 
10.25 


4.43 
4.75 


10.32 


6.59 


10.98 


4.70 


10.52 
10.74 
10.83 


5.05 
6.53 
4.79 


10.51 


4.71 


10.42 
10.18 
10.30 


4.54 
4.62 
4.74 


10.28 


3.84 


10.16 


4.42 


8.41 
8.58 


8.97 
6.19 


8.33 


5.40 


7.65 


6.00 


7.66 

7.58 


6.77 
4.59 


7.36 


4.86 


7.80 


5.07 



14.53 
17.72 

20.0 

17.9 
21.1 
24.8 

25.7 

28.2 
30.7 

36.1 

24.2 

18.7 
31.7 
27.9 

23.1 

29.6 
26.4 
26.8 

28.4 

21.5 

42.9 
37.0 

32.4 

36.0 

40.6 
34.9 

27.6 

36.2 



3.40 
3.16 

3.14 

3.65 
3.51 
2.48 

3.26 

3.30 
3.36 

3.34 

3.14 

3.34 
3.21 
3.28 

2.93 

3.31 
3.43 
3.46 

3.35 

3.45 

3.68 
3.61 

3.72 

4.04 

4.05 
4.6 

4.21 

3.97 



183 
169 

280 

288 
382 
455 

318 

350 
374 

401 

286 

125 
266 
378 

345 

715 
501 
504 

966 

348 

326 
553 

476 

445 

502 

415 

183 
453 



1.9 
47.4 

12.0 

15.2 

1.8 

23.0 

32.6 

7.9 
15.0 

60.4 

14.3 

21.0 
51.0 
16.5 

15.7 

7.2 
10.0 
10.1 

—4.0 

6.8 

17.0 
51.5 

26.8 

41.7 

67.4 
12.1 

22.1 

39.5 



5.77 
5.2 

6.65 

6.47 
7.25 
6.3 

5.18 

7.75 
7.26 

5.23 

7.34 

6.87 

5.3 

7.2 

6.48 

7.6 

7.55 
7.5 

8.9 

7.8 

3.45 
5.00 

5.73 

5.16 

4.60 
6.63 

6.38 

6.11 



.7of 1% 



.75 of 1% 

.15% 

Super Heat. 

Dry. 

.5 of 1% 

.17 of 1% 
Dry. 

.1 of 1% 

.3 of 1% 



.75 of 1% 

Dry. 
.64 of 1% 
.86 of 1% 



.8 of 1% 

.84 of 1% 
.6 of 1% 
.2 of 1% 

Dry. 

.8 of Ifo 



These latter results, however, are relatively just as good as the former, because, while 
the coals of the former tests are high in heat value, carry little ash and make almost no 
clinker, the coals of the latter tests are low in heat value, contain much ash and make 
much clinker. Furthermore, each class of coal varies in value somewhat, and hence 
the results of any one group rarely agree. 




Boiler Room of Mutual Light and Power Co., 

MONTGOMERY, ALA. 

1200 H. P. of Heine Boilers. 



BOILER TESTING. 

A committee of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers revised the 
1885 Code and reported an amended code at the December, 1898, meeting of 
the Society, to be known as the Code of 1898. This committee recommended 
that, as far as possible, the capacity of a boiler be expressed in terms of the 
number of pounds of water evaporated per hour, from and at 212 degrees 
Fahrenheit, although they said it was not expedient to abandon the widely 
recognized measure of capacity expressed in terms of horse-power. They 
define a boiler horse-power to be 34J units of evaporation per hour, or 34J 
pounds of water evaporated per hour from a feed temperature of 212 degrees 
Fahrenheit into dry steam at the same pressure. This standard is equiva- 
lent to 33,317 B. T. U. per hour. It is also practically equivalent to an 
evaporation of 30 pounds of water from a feed water temperature of 100 
degrees Fahrenheit into steam at 70 pounds pressure. The committee also 
indorsed the statement of the committee of 1885 concerning the commercial 
rating of boilers, changing it slightly, to read as follows: 

" A boiler rated at any stated capacity should develop that capacity 
when using the best coal ordinarily sold in the market where the boiler is 
located, when fired by an ordinary fireman, without forcing the fires, while 
exhibiting good economy ; and, further, that the boiler should develop at 
least one-third more than the stated capacity when using the same fuel and 
operated by the same fireman, the full draft being employed and the fires 
being crowded ; the available draft at the damper, unless otherwise under- 
stood, being not less than J-inch water column." 

RULES FOR CONDUCTING BOILER TESTS. 
CODE OF 1898. (Abridged.) 

I. Determine at the outset the specific object of the proposed trial, whether 
it be to ascertain the capacity of the boiler, its efficiency as a steam generator, 
its efficiency and its defects under usual working conditions, the economy of 
some particular kind of fuel, or the effect of changes of design, proportion, 
or operation ; and prepare for the trial accordingly. 

II. Exa^nine the boiler, both outside and inside ; ascertain the dimensions 
of grates, heating surfaces, and all important parts ; and make a full record, 
describing the same, and illustrating special features by sketches. The area 
of heating surface is to be computed from the outside diameter of water- 
tubes and the inside diameter of fire-tubes. 

III. Notice the general condition of the boiler and its equipment, and record 
such facts in relation thereto as bear upon the objects in view. 

IV. Determine the character of the coal \o be used. For tests of the effi- 
ciency or capacity of the boiler for comparison with other boilers, the coal 
should, if possible, be of some kind which is commercially regarded as a 
standard. 

For New England and that portion of the country east of the Allegheny 
Mountains, good anthracite egg coal, containing not over 10 per cent, of 
ash, and semi-bituminous Clearfield (Pa. ), Cumberland (Md.), and Poca- 
hontas (Va.) coals are thus regarded. West of the Allegheny Mountains, 
Pocahontas (Va.) and New River (W. Va.) semi-bituminous, and Youghio- 



87 



gheny or Pittsburg bituminous coals are recognized as standards.* There is 
no special grade of coal mined in the Western States which fs widely recog- 
nized as of superior quality or considered as a standard coal for boiler test- 
ing. Big Muddy lump, an Illinois coal mined in Jackson County, 111., is 
suggested as being of sufficiently high grade to answer the requirements in 
districts where it is more conveniently obtainable than the other coals men- 
tioned above. 

V. Establish the correctness of all apparatus used in the test for weighing 
and measuring. These are : 

1. Scales for weighing coal, ashes, and water. 

2. Tanks, or water meters for measuring water. Water meters, as a 
rule, should only be used as a check on other measurements. For accurate 
work, the water should be weighed or measured in a tank. 

3. Thermometers and pyrometers for taking temperatures of air, steam, 
feed-water, waste gases, etc. 

4. Pressure gauges, draught gauges, etc. 

The kind and location of the various pieces of testing apparatus must be 
left to the judgment of the person conducting the test ; always keeping in 
mind the main object, i. e. , to obtain authentic data. 

VI. See that the boiler is thoroughly heated before the trial to its usual 
working temperature. If the boiler is new and of a form provided with a 
brick setting, it should be in regular use at least a week before the trial, 
so as to dry and heat the walls. If it has been laid off and become cold, 
it should be worked before the trial until the walls are well heated. 

VII. The boiler and connections should be proved to be free from leaks 
before beginning a test, and all water connections, including blow and extra 
feed pipes, should be disconnected, stopped with blank flanges, or bled 
through special openings beyond the valves, except the particular pipe 
through which water is to be fed to the boiler during the trial. During the 
test the blow-off and feed pipes should remain exposed. 

If an injector is used, it should receive steam directly through a felted 
pipe from the boiler being tested. 

See that the steam main is so arranged that water of condensation can 
not run back into the boiler. 

VIII. Starting and Stoppijig a Test, — A test should last at least ten hours 
of continuous running, but, if the rate of combustion exceeds 25 pounds of 
coal per square foot of grate per hour it may be stopped when a total of 250 
pounds of coal has been burned per square foot of grate surface. The con- 
ditions of the boiler and furnace in all respects should be, as nearly as pos- 
sible, the same at 'the end as at the beginning of the test. The steam 
pressure should be the same ; the water level the same ; the fire upon the 
grates should be the same in quantity and condition ; and the walls, flues, 
etc., should be of the same temperature. Two methods of obtaining the 
desired equality of conditions of the fi:e may be used, viz. : those which 
were called in the Code of 1885 '' the standard method " and " the alternate 
method," the latter being employed where it is inconvenient to make use of 
the standard method. 

* These coals are selected because they are about the only coals which contain the 
essentials of excellence of quality, adaptability to various kinds of furnaces, grates, 
boilers, and methods of firing, and wide distribution and general accessibility in the 
markets. 



IX. Standard Method. — Steam being raised to the working pressure 
remove rapidly all the fire from the grate, close the damper, clean the ash 
pit, and as quickly as possible start a new fire with weighed wood and coal, 
noting the time and the water level while the water is in a quiescent state, 
just before lighting the fire. 

At the end of the test remove the whole fire, which has been burned low, 
clean the grates and ash pit and note the water level when the water is in a 
quiescent state, and record the time of hauling the fire. The water level 
should be as nearly as possible the same as at the beginning of the test. If 
it is not the same, a correction should be made by computation, and not by 
operating the pump after the test is completed. 

X. Alternate Method. — The boiler being thoroughly heated by a prelimi- 
nary run, the fires are to be burned low and well cleaned. Note the amount 
of coal left on the grate as nearly as it can be estimated ; note the pressure 
of steam and the water level, and note this time as the time of starting the 
test. Fresh coal which has been weighed should now be fired. The ash 
pits should be thoroughly cleaned at once after starting. Before the end of 
the test the fires should be burned low, just as before the start, and the 
fires cleaned in such a manner as to leave the bed of coal of the same depth, 
and in the same condition, on the grates as at the start. The water level 
and steam pressures should previously be brought as nearly as possible to 
the same point as at the start, and the time of ending of the test should be 
noted just before fresh coal is fired. If the water level is not the same as at 
the start, a correction should be made by computation, and not by operating 
the pump after the test is completed. 

XI. Uniformity of Co7iditions. — In all trials made to ascertain maximum 
economy or capacity, the conditions should be maintained uniformly con- 
stant. Arrangements should be made to dispose of the steam so that the 
rate of evaporation may be kept the same from beginning to end. 

Uniformity of conditions should prevail as to the pressure of steam, the 
height of water, the rate of evaporation, the thickness of fire, the times of 
firing and quantity of coal fired at one time, and as to the intervals between 
the times of cleaning the fires. 

XII. Keeping the Records. — Take note of every event connected with the 
progress of the trial, however unim.portant it may appear. Record the time 
of every occurrence and the time of taking every weight and every obser- 
vation. 

The coal should be weighed and delivered to the fireman in equal propor- 
tions, each sufficient for not more than one hour's run, and a fresh portion 
should not be delivered until the previous one has all been fired. The time 
required to consume each portion should be noted, the time being recorded 
at the instant of firing the last of each portion. It is desirable that at the 
same time the amount of water fed into the boiler should be accurately 
noted and recorded, including the height of the water in the boiler, and the 
average pressure of steam and temperature of feed during the time. In 
addition to these records of the coal and the feed water, half hourly obser- 
vations should be made of the temperature of the feed water, of the flue 
gases, of the external air in the boiler-room, of the temperature of the fur" 
nace when a furnace pyrometer is used, also of the pressure of steam, and 

89 




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CQ 

>> 

M-i 

-CO 



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D, 

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or 
LU 



of the reading of the instruments for determining the moisture in the steam. 
A log should be kept on properly prepared blanks containing columns for 
record of the various observations. 

XIII. Quality of Steam. — The percentage of moisture in the steam should 
be determined by the use of either a throttling or a separating steam calori- 
meter. The sampling nozzle should be placed in the vertical steam pipe 
rising from the boiler. It should be made of J-inch pi } e, and should extend 
across the diameter of the steam pipe to within half an inch of the opposite 
side, being closed at the end and perforated with not less than twenty 
3^ -inch holes equally distributed along and around its cylindrical surface, 
but none of these holes should be nearer than ^-inch to the inner side of the 
steam pipe. The calorimeter and the pipe leading to it should be well cov- 
ered with felting. 

Superheating should be determined by means of a thermometer placed in 
a mercury well inserted in the steam pipe. The degree of superheating 
should be taken as the difference between the reading of the thermometer 
for super-heated steam and the readings of the same thermometer for satu- 
rated steam at the same pressure as determined by a special experiment, 
and not by reference to steam tables. 

XIV. Sampling the Coal and Determining its Moisture. — As each barrow 
load or fresh portion of coal is taken from the coal pile, a representative shov- 
elful is selected from it and placed in a barrel or box in a cool place and kept 
until the end of the trial. The samples are then mixed and broken into 
pieces not exceeding one inch in diameter, and reduced by the process of 
repeated quartering and crushing until a fmal sample weighing about five 
pounds is obtained, and the size of the larger pieces are such that they will 
pass through a sieve with J-inch meshes. From this sample two one-quart, 
air-tight glass preserving jars or other air-tight vessels which will prevent 
the escape of moisture from the sample, are to be promptly filled, and these 
samples are to be kept for subsequent determinations of moisture and of 
heating value and for chemical analyses. During the process of quartering, 
when the sample has been reduced to about lOO pounds, a quarter to a half 
of it may be taken for an approximate determination of moisture. This may 
be made by placing it in a shallow iron pan, not over three inches deep, 
carefully weighing it and setting the pan in the hottest place that can be 
found on the brickwork of the boiler setting or flues, keeping it there for at 
least 12 hours, and then weighing it. The determination of moisture thus 
made is believed t) be approximately accurate for anthracite and semi- 
bituminous coals, and also for Pittsburg or Youghiogheny coal ; but it can 
not be relied upon for coals mined west of Pittsburg, or for other coals con- 
taining inherent moisture. For these latter coals it is important that a more 
accurate method be adopted. 

XV. Treatment of Ashes and Refuse. — The ashes and refuse are to be 
weighed in a dry state. For elaborate trials a sample of the same should 
be procured and analyzed. 

XVI. Calorific Tests and Analysis of Coal. — The quality of the fuel should 
be determined either by heat test or by analysis, or by both. 

The rational method of determining the total heat of combustion is to 



91 



burn the sample of coal in an atmosphere of oxygen gas, the coal to be 
sampled as directed in Article XIV. of this Code. 

The chemical analysis of the coal should be made only by an expert 
ch ?mist. 

XVII. Analysis of Flue Gases. — The analysis of the flue gases is an 
especially valuable method of determining the relative value of different 
methods of firing, or of different kinds of furnaces. In making these analy- 
ses great care should be taken to procure average samples — since the com- 
position is apt to vary at different points of the flue. The composition is 
also apt to vary from minute to minute, and for this reason the drawings of 
gas should last a considerable period of time. Where complete determina- 
tions are desired, the analysis should be intrusted to an expert chemist. For 
approximate determinations the Orsat or the Hempel apparatus may be 
used by the engineer. 

XVIII. Smoke Observations. — It is desirable to have a uniform system of 
determining and recording the quantity of smoke produced where bituminous 
coal is used. The system commonly employed is to express the degree of 
smokiness by means of percentages dependent upon the judgment of the 
observer. The Committee does not place much value upon a percentage 
method, because it depends so largely upon the personal element, but if this 
method is used, it is desirable that, so far as possible, a definition be given 
in explicit terms as to the basis and method employed in arriving at the 
percentage. 

XIX. Miscellajieous. — In tests for purposes of scientific research, in which 
the determination of all the variables entering into the test is desired, cer- 
tain observations should be made which are in general unnecessary for 
ordinary tests. These are the measurement of the air supply, the determi- 
nation of its contained moisture, the determination of the amount of heat 
lost by radiation, of the amount of infiltration of air through the setting, and 
(by condensation of all the steam made by the boiler) of the total heat 
imparted to the water. 

As these determinations are not likely to be undertaken except by engi- 
neers of high scientific attainments, it is not deemed advisable to give 
directions for making them. They are : 

XX. Calculations of Efficiency. — Two methods of defining and calculating 
the efficiency of a boiler are recommended. 

„^^ . r ., , ., Heat absorbed per lb. combustible 

1. Efficiency of the boiler=ri ■■ \ h — n ; ^r-r 

Heating value of i lb. combustible 

-rr • r .1 1 M 1 . Heat absorbed per lb. coal 

2. Efficiency of the boiler and grate=:r, — r- , -r — v\ r 

Heatmg value of i lb. coal 

The first of these is sometimes called the efficiency based on combustible, 
and the second the efficiency based on coal. The first is recommended as a 
standard of comparison for all tests, and this is the one which is understood 
to be referred to when the word " efficiency " alone is used without qualifi- 
cation. The second, however, should be included in a report of a test, 
together with the first, whenever the object of the test is to determine the 
efficiency of the boiler and furnace together with the grate (or mechanical 
stoker), or to compare different furnaces, grates, fuels, or methods of firing. 



92 



The heat absorbed per pound of combustible (or per pound coal) is to be 
calculated by multiplying the equivalent evaporation from and at 212 
degrees per pound combustible (or coal) by 965.7. 

XXI. The Heat Balance. — An approximate *'heat balance," or statement 
of the distribution of the heating value of the coal among the several items 
of heat utilized and heat lost may be included in the report of a test when 
analyses of the fuel and of the chimney gases have been made. It should be 
reported in the following form: 

HEA.T Bj^.i,ance:, or Distribution of the Heating Vai^ue of thf Combustibi^f. 
Total Heat value of 1 lb. of Combustible B. T. U. 



Heat absorbed by the boiler = evaporation from and at 212 

degrees per pound of combustible X 965.7. 
Loss due to moisture in coal = per cent, of moisture referred to 

combustible -^ 100 X [(212—/) + 966 + 0.48 (7^—212)] 

(/f=:temperature of air in the boiler-room, T= that of the 

flue gases). 
Loss due to moisture formed by the burning of hydrogen = per 

cent of hydrogen to combustible ^ 100 X 9 X [(212—/) + 

966+0.48 (r— 212).] 
Loss due to heat carried away in the dry chimney gases = weight 

of gas per pound of combustible X 0.24 X {T — t) . 

CO 



5.t Loss due to incomplete combustion of carbon= 



per cent C in combustible 
100 



CO2 



CO 



-X 



X 10,150. 



6. 



Loss due to unconsumed hydrogen and hydrocarbons, to heat- 
ing the moisture in the air, to radiation and unaccounted for. 
(Some of these losses may be separately itemized if data are 
obtained from which they may be calculated). 

Totals 



B. T. U. Per Cent. 



100.00 



* The weight of gas per pound of carbon burned may be calculated from the gas 
analysis as follows : 

^ ^ 11 CO2 + 8 O + 7 (CO + N^ . , . , ^^ ^^ ^ 

Dry gas per pound carbon= _ ._,, — , ^,^. '-, in which CO2, CO, O, 

o ^^C02 -\- L-Oj 

and N are the percentages by volume of the several gases. As the sampling and 
analyses of the gases in the present state of the art are liable to considerable errors, 
the result of this calculation is usually only an approximate one. The heat balance 
itself is also only approximate for this reason, as well as for the fact that it is not pos- 
sible to determine accurately the percentage of unburned hydrogen or hydrocarbons 
in the flue gases. 

The weight of dry gas per pound of combustible is found by multiplying the dry 
gas per pound of carbon by the percentage of carbon in the combustible and dividing 
by 100. 

t CO2 and CO are respectively the percentage by volume of carbonic acid and car- 
l)onic oxide in the flue gases. The quantity 10,150 = No. heat units generated by 
Ijurning to carbonic acid one pound of carbon contained in carbonic oxide. 

XXII. Report of the Trial. — The data and results should be reported in 
the manner given in either one of the two following tables, omitting lines 
where the tests have not been made as elaborately as provided for in such 
tables. Additional lines may be added for data relating to the specific 
object of the test. 

The Short Form of Report, Table No. 2, is recommended for commercial 
tests and as a convenient form of abridging the longer form for publication 
when saving of space is desirable. 



93 



TABI.K NO. 2. 

Data and Rksui^ts of Evaporative Test, 

Arranged in accordance with the Short Form advised by the Boiler Test 
Committee of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 

Made by on boiler, at to 

determine 

Grate surface sq. ft» 

Water-heating surface • * ' 

Superheating surface *' 

Kind of fuel 

Kind of furnace 



Total Quantities. 

1. Date of trial 

2. Duration of trial hours. 

3. Weight of coal as fired lbs. 

4. Percentage of moisture in coal per cent. 

5. Total weight of dry coal consumed lbs. 

6. Total ash and refuse , ** 

7. Percentage of ash and refuse in dry coal per cent. 

8. Total weight of water fed to the boiler lbs. 

9. Water actually evaporated, corrected for moisture or supec-heat 

in steam " 

Hourly Quantities. 

10. Dry coal consumed per hour lbs. 

11. Dry coal per hour per square foot of grate surface " 

\A. Water fed per hour " 

13. Equivalent water evaporated per hour from and at 212 degrees 

corrected for quality of steam ^ ** 

14. Equivalent water evaporated per square foot of water-heating 

surface per hour ** 

Average Pressures , Temperatures, etc. 

15. Average boiler pressure lbs. per sq. in. 

16. Average temperature of feed water deg. 

17. Average temperature of escaping gases *' 

18. Average force of draft between damper and boiler.. ins. of water. 

19. Percentage of moisture in steam, or number of degrees of super- 

heating 

Horse-Power. 

20. Horse-power developed (Item 13 h- 34 j^) H. P. 

21. Builders' rated horse-power " 

22. Percentage of builders' rated horse-power..... percent. 

Economic Results. 

23. Water apparently evaporated per pound of coal under actual con- 

ditions. (Item 8 ^ Item 3) lbs. 

24. Equivalent water actually evaporated from and at 212 degrees per 

pound of coal as fired. (Item 13 -4-(Item 5 -r- 2)) ** 

25. Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 degrees per pound of dry 

coal. (Item 13 -^ Item 10) " 

26. Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 degrees per pound of 

combustible. [Item 13 ~ [(Item 5 — Item 6) ^ Item 2] ** 

(If Items 23, 24 and 25 are not corrected for quality of steam, 
the fact should be stated. ) 

94 



Efficiency . 

27. Heating value of the coal per pound B. T. U. 

28. Efficiency of boiler (based on combustible) 

29. Efficiency of boiler, including grate (based on coal) 

Cost of Evapora Hon . 

30. Cost of coal per ton delivered in boiler-room $ 

31. Cost of coal required for evaporation of 1,000 pounds of water 

from and at 212 degrees $ 

The observations taken during the test should be recorded on a series of 
blanks prepared in advance, so as to be adapted for the purpose of the trial. 
The number of sheets and the number of items on each may be varied to 
suit the number of observers and the work designated for each. It will be 
found convenient and desirable to have the blanks for the coal and water 
observations independent of those for general observations and in general 
independent of each other. In all cases the first column of the coal record 
and of the water record should be devoted to the time ; stating, for instance, 
when a particular barrow of coal is dumped or a particular tank of water let 
down. Error is best avoided by having separate columns for gross weights, 
tare and net weights, even though the tare be constant. The feed-water 
record should contain a column for temperature in case the same is taken in 
the tank, and also a column for height of water in glass gauge on boiler, 
which is to be noted when tank is emptied if the feed pump or injector is 
directly connected thereto. 

It is agreed that the coal should be weighed and the water measured or 
weighed at practically regular intervals, and that in every case the time be 
put down when a bucket of coal is dumped or a tank of water let down, 
when, by simple reference to the clock, all disputes as to neglected tallies 
will be eliminated. 

To the report are appended a number of suggestions as to the modus 
operandi of making certain ones of the various determinations, but while of 
great value, these cannot be printed in this volume, because of lack of 
space. 



A Completed Water Leg for 
a 350 H. P. Heine Boiler. 



95 








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CONDENSATION OF STEAM IN PIPES. 

When steam pipes are exposed to the open air, the steam condenses 
more or less rapidly, according to the condition of the surfaces and the 
temperature and rate of motion of the air. This loss is quite serious in 
itself and further increases the losses by cylinder condensation, as indicated 
on page 63. 

Experiments made by different parties in still air gave the following 
results : 

TABLE No. 60. 

Condensation in Uncovered Pipes. 



OBSERVER. 


Difference of 

Temperature of Steam 

and Air. 


Steam Condensed 

per Square Foot per 

Hour, per 1° F. 


H. U. Lost per 

Square Foot per Hour, 

per 1° F. 


Tregold 


161^ F. 
196.6° F. 
151^ F. 

168° F. 


0.0022 lb. 
0.0030 lb. 
0.00217 lb. 
0.0020 lb. 


2.100 


Burnat 


2.864 


Clement 


2.071 


Grouvelle 


1.909 






Average for steam of 20 
lbs. absolute pressure 


169° F. 


0.00235 lb. 


2.236 



We further give an abstract of the results of a careful series of tests 
made by Mr. George M. Brill, M. E., in 1895, with the best modern cover- 
ings, and with the most accurate instruments. The steam pressure carried 
ran between 110 and 119 lbs. per square inch, and the temperature of the 
air varied from 50° to 81° F. in the various tests. 

For the purposes of these tests about 60 feet of standard 8 -inch wrought 
pipe, coupled together, in order to make it smooth and regular, was sus- 
pended where it could not be subjected to currents of air. In order to get 
the steam as dry as possible it was sent through a separator on its way to 
the test pipe, and in the short connection between the separator and the 
pipe was placed a throttling calorimeter. The test pipe had an inclination 
of one foot in its entire length, which insured drainage of all the water of 
condensation to the lower end, at which point the receiver was connected, 
and into which the water gravitated as rapidly as formed. The water was 
measured in this receiver, which consisted of four feet of 12 -inch pipe, with 
graduated water glasses attached near the top and bottom. The same vol- 
ume of water was allowed to collect each time, was measured under the 
steam pressure, and blown from the receiver at the end of the run. A care- 
ful determination was made of the amount of water collected by weighing 
the same volume while cold, and correcting for difference in weight due to 
the difference in temperature for the respective runs. 



97 



The tests were made upon a scale large enough — in fact, upon a pipe 
of the size and length which is very common in the average power plant — 
with sufficient care, and in a manner to insure accuracy in the results ob- 
tained, and are consequently of much interest and value to all users of 
steam. 

The results reduced to the proper units are given in Table No. 61 
below, and may be taken as fairly representative of the best modern prac- 
tice. Of course, whenever steam pipes are placed where they are exposed 
to currents of air, the amount of condensation will be much greater than the 
tabular numbers. 

This table also gives the saving in pounds of steam, and in dollars and 
cents due to the use of coverings. This saving is based on the assumption 
that coal costs ;^2.44 per ton, and adding 12 per cent for cost of firing, and 
taking 7 lbs. water per lb. of coal as an evaporative figure, which are rough 
approximations to average American conditions. 



TABLE No. 6i. 

Showing Radiation Due to Bare and Covered Pipes, and Sav- 
ing Due to Coverings. 



KINDS OF COVERING. 



Bare Pipe 

Magnesia 

Rock Wool 

Mineral Wool 

Fire Felt 

Manville Sectional 

Manville Sectional and 

Hair Felt 

Manville Wool Cement.. 
Champion Mineral Wool, 

Hair Felt 

Riley Cement 

Fossil Meal i 



•O <U 4) J. 

S ^ 5? S 
.t: 3 hc^ 
p c m c 



cS 



^ <v <v c 
,-: = S-c 

^ D.U,Q OS 



2.7059 
.3838 
.2556 
.2846 
.5023 
.3496 

.2119 
.3448 
.3166 
.4220 
.9531 
.8787 



73 (U 0) ' 



(U 



<U 



(/> f^ J- n 

dj a* 01 fa 

^ . H 

o >- ^ _ 






,003107 
,000432 
.000285 
.000311 
.000591 
.000409 

.000243 
.000410 
.000364 
.000472 
.001089 
.001010 



T5 _^ 

i ^ u 

™ 3 !5 

W 5 O) 

•^ H D- 



635,801 
670,666 
662,957 
603,389 
645,174 

682,930 
646,488 
654,197 
625,376 
479,960 
500,284 



~ 41 

\- . 

c ta u 

"~ 3 as 

^ o <u 
CO 



$110.82 
116.90 
115.55 
105.17 
112.45 

119.03 
112.68 
114.03 
109.00 
83.66 
87.20 



The presence of sulphur in the best coverings and its recognized injur- 
ious effects, makes it imperative that moisture must be kept from the cov- 
erings, for if present, will surely combine with the sulphur, thus making it 
active. This could be stated in other words, keep the pipes and covering in 
good repair. Much of the inefficiency of coverings is due to the lack of 
attention given them ; they are often seen hanging loosely from the pipe 
which they are supposed to protect. 



98 



All coverings should be looked after at least once a year and given nee- 
essary repairs, refitted to the pipe, the spaces due to shrinkage taken up, 
for little can be expected from the best non-conductors if they are allowed 
to become saturated with water, or if air currents are permitted to circulate 
between them and the pipe. 

As a very rough approximation we may say that each 10 square feet of 
uncovered pipe will condense, in winter, 105 lbs. of steam during a day of 
ten hours. Under the same conditions, the same pipe protected with the 
best covering will condense approximately 8^- lbs. steam. 

In summer these figures will be reduced respectively to 80 lbs. and 
6 J lbs. of steam. 

Moisture in steam at the end of a long pipe line is often erroneously 
attributed to priming of the boiler; whereas, it is really due to condensation. 
The amount of steam condensed is really but a very small proportion of the 
total steam passing through the pipe, but gradually collecting at some point 
in the line, it is carried along in a body at intervals, producing the effects 
Qf entrained water. 




SANnF.R5-C0 ST LOUIS 



LofC. 



Denver Consolidated Electric Light Co., 

DENVER, COLO. 

Contains 3500 H. P. of Heine Boilers. 



99 



THE BOILER. 



An association of practical boiler manufacturers, meeting in convention 
for the avowed purpose of bettering the construction of that all important 
and often much abused part of a steam plant, cannot be excelled as a source 
of trustworthy information concerning the construction of the boiler. 

At the Tenth Annual Convention of the American Boiler Manufacturers* 
Association, held at St. Louis, Mo., October 3-6, 1898, were unanimously 
adopted a complete set of boiler specifications, known as the Uniform American 
Boiler Specifications. These contain, in addition to the requirements as to 
materials, methods and calculations, many reasons, arguments and explana- 
tions. The chairman of the committee was instructed to prepare an abridged 
form containing only the mandatory clauses. This, after submission to the 
other members of the committee and approved by them, is here published. 

These specifications refer of course to all types of boiler, and a careful, 
examination will show that the Heine Boiler is built in accordance with the 
rules here laid down. 

UNIFORM AMERICAN BOILER SPECIFICATIONS 

ADOPTED BY THE 

AMERICAN BOILER MANUFACTURERS' ASSOCIATION. 

(See Proceedings 1889, pp. 49, 50, 66-81, 84-88.) 
(See Proceedings 1897, pp. 42-54, 61-77, 207-208.) 
(See Proceedings 1898, pp. 49-100.) 



I. MATERIALS. 



1. Cast Iron — Should be of soft, gray texture and high degree of 
ductility. To be used only for hand-hole plates, crabs, yokes, etc., and 
manheads. It is a dangerous metal to be used in mud drums, legs, necks, 
headers, manhole rings or any part of a boiler subject to tensile strains ; its 
use is prohibited for such parts. 

2. Steel — Homogeneous steel made by the open hearth or crucible 
processes, and having the following qualities, is to be used in all boilers : 

Tensile Strength, Elongation, Chemical Tests — Shell plates not exposed 
to the direct heat of the fire or gases of combustion, as in the external shells 
of internally fired boilers, may have from 65,000 to 70,000 pounds tensile 
strength; elongation not less than 24 per cent in 8 inches; phosphorus not 
over .035 per cent ; sulphur not over .035 per cent. 

Shell plates in any way exposed to the direct heat of the fire or the 
gases of combustion, as in the external shells or heads of externally fired 

100 



boilers, or plates on which any flanging is to be done, to have from 60,000 
to 65,000 pounds tensile strength ; elongation not less than 27 per cent in 8 
inches ; phosphorus not over .03 per cent ; sulphur not over .025 per cent. 

Fire box plates or such as are exposed to the direct heat of the fire, or 
flanged on the greater portion of their periphery, to have 55,000 to 62 000 
pounds tensile strength ; elongation 30 per cent in 8 inches ; phosphorus 
not over .03 per cent ; sulphur not over .025 per cent. 

For all plates the elastic limit to be at least one-half the ultimate 
strength ; percentage of manganese and carbon left to the judgment of the 
steel maker. 

Test Section to be 8 inches long, planed or milled edges; its cross 
sectional area not less than one-half of one square inch, nor width less than 
the thickness of the plate. 

Bending Test — Steel up to }^ inch thickness must stand bending double, 
and being hammiered down on itself ; above that thickness it must bend 
round a mandrel of diameter of one and one-half times the thickness of 
plate down to 180 degrees. All without showing signs of distress. 

Bending Test Piece to be in length not less than sixteen times thick- 
ness of plate, and rough, shear edges milled or filed off. Such pieces to be 
cut both lengthwise and crosswise of the plate. 

All tests to be made at the steel mill. Three pulling tests and three 
bending tests to be made from each heat. If one fails the manufacturer may 
furnish and test a fourth piece, but if two fail the entire heat to be rejected. 

Certified Copies of tests to be furnished each member of A. B. M. A. 
from heats from which his plates are made. 

3. Rivets to be of good charcoal iron, or of a soft, mild steel, having 
the same physical and chemical properties as the fire box plates, and must 
test hot and cold by driving down on an anvil with the head in a die ; by 
nicking and bending, by bending back on themselves cold, without develop- 
ing cracks or flaws. 

4. Boiler Tubes, of charcoal iron or mild steel specially made for 
the purpose, and lap welded or drawn ; they should be round, straight, free 
from scales, blisters and mechanical defects, each tested to 500 pounds 
internal hydrostatic pressure. 

This fact and manufacturer's name to be plainly stencilled on each 
tube. 

Standard Thicknesses by Birmingham wire gauge to be 

No. 13 for tubes 1 in., 1^ in., 1}4. in. and 13^ in. diameter. 
No. 12 for tubes 2 in., 2}( in. and 2^ in. diameter. 
No. 11 for tubes 2^ in., 8 in., 3^ in. and 3^ in. diameter. 
No. 10 for tubes 3^ in. and 4 in. diameter. 
No. 9 for tubes 4^ in. and 5 in. diameter. 
Tests. A section cut from ane tube taken at random from a lot of 150 
or less must stand hammering down cold vertically without cracking or 
splitting when down solid. 
Length of test pieces : 

% inch for tubes from 1 in. to 1^ in. diameter. 
1 inch for tubes from 2 in. to 2}^ in. diameter. 
1}( inch for tubes from 2-^4 ^^' to 3^ in. diameter. 
1]4 inch for tubes from 3>4 in. to 4 in. diameter, 
1^ inch for tubes from 4>^ in. to 5 in. diameter. 

101 




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All tubes must stand expanding flange over on tube plate and bending 
without flaw, crack or opening of the weld. 

5. Stay Bolts to be made of iron or mild steel specially manufacturec' 
for the purpose, and must show on: 

Test Section 8 inches long, net : 

For Iron, tensile strength not less than 46,000 lbs.; elastic limit not less 
than 26,000 lbs.; elongation not less than 22 per cent for bolts of less than 
one (1) square inch area, nor less than 20 per cent for bolts one (1) square 
inch and more in net area. 

For Steel, tensile strength not less than 55,000 lbs.; elastic limit not 
less than 33,000 lbs.; elongation not less than 25 per cent for bolts of less 
than one (i) square inch area, nor less than 22 per cent for bolts one (1) 
square inch and more in net area. 

Tests. A bar taken from a lot of 1,000 lbs. or less at random, threaded 
with a sharp die "V" thread with rounded edges, must bend cold 180 deg. 
around a bar of same diameter without showing any crack or flaws. 

Another piece, similarly chosen and threaded, to be screwed into well- 
fitting nuts formed of pieces of the plates to be stayed, and riveted over so 
as to form an exact counterpart of the bolt in the finished structure ; to be 
pulled in testing machine and breaking stress noted ; if it fails by pulling 
apart the tensile stress per square inch of net section is its measure of 
strength ; if it fails by shearing the shear stress per square inch of mean 
section in shear is this measure. The mean section in shear is the product 
of half the thickness of the plate by the circumference at half height of 
thread. 

6. Braces and Stays. Material to be fully equal to stay bolt stock, 
and tensile strength to be determined by testing a bar not less than ten 
inches (10 in.) long from each lot of 1,000 lbs. or less. 

II. WORKMANSHIP AND DIMENSIONS. 

7. Flanging, Bending and Forming to be done at a heat suitedto the 
material, but no bending must be done or blow struck on any plate which no 
longer shows red by daylight at the working point and at least 4 inches 
beyond it. 

8. Rolling must be done cold by -gradual and regular increments from 
the straight plate to the exact circle required and the whole circumference 
including the lap rolled to a true circle. 

9. Bumped Head uniformly dished to a segment of a sphere should 
have a thickness equal to that of a cylindrical shell of solid plate of same 
material, whose diameter is equal to the radius of curvature of the dished head. 

Rivet holes, man holes, etc., to be allowed for by proportionate increase 
in the thickness. 

10. Riveting. Holes made perfectly true and fair by clean cutting 
punches or drills. Sharp edges and burrs removed by slight counter sink- 
ing and burr reaming before and after sheets are joined together. 

Under side of original rivet head must be flat, square and smooth. For 
rivets Ys inch to ^Yie inches diameter allow 1 Y2 diameters for length of stock to 
form the head, and less for larger rivets. Allow 5 per cent more stock 
for driven head for button set or snap rivets. Use light regulation riveting 

103 



hammers until rivet is well upset in the hole; after that snap and heavy 
mauls. For machine riveting more stock to be left for driven head to make 
it equal to original head, as fixed by experiment. 

Total pressure on the die about 80 tons for 1)4 inch to 1^ inch rivets ; 
65 tons for 1 inch ; 57 tons for ^f inch ; 35 tons for % inch rivets. 

Make heads of rivets equal in strength to shanks by making head at 
periphery of shank of a height equal to ys diameter of shank and giving a 
slight fillet at this point. 

Approximately make rivet holes double thickness of thinnest plate; 
pitch three times rivet hole ; pitch lines of staggered rows }4 pitch apart ; 
lap for single riveting equal to pitch, for double riveting 1)4 pitch, and }4 
pitch more for each additional row of rivets ; exact dimensions determined by 
making resistance to shear of aggregate rivet section at least 10 per cent 
greater than tensile strength of net or standing metal. 

11. Rivet Holes punched with good sharp punches and well fitting 
dies in A. B. M. A. steel up to s/^ inch thickness ; in thicker plates punch 
and ream with a fluted reamer, or drill the holes. 

12. Drift Pin to be used only with light hammers to pull plates into 
place and round up the hole, but never to enlarge or gouge holes with heavy 
hammers. 

13. Calking to be done by hand or pneumatic hammer and Conery 
or round nosed tool. Avoid excessive calking; the fit must be made in the 
laying of the plates. The square nosed tool may be used for finishing with 
great care to avoid nicking lower plate. Calking edges must be prepared 
by bevel planing, shearing or chipping. 

14 Flat Surfaces. State the thickness of the plate **t" in six- 
teenths of an inch, the pitch " p " in inches, and. use a constant : 

C=112 for plates ^b" ^^<^h and under with screw stays with riveted 
ends. 

C=120 for plates over y\ inch with screw stays with riveted ends. 

C=140 for all plates when in addition to screw threads in the plates a 
nut is used inside and outside of each plate. 

When salt, acids or alkali are contained in the feed water, this latter 
construction is imperative. 

Rule. — Multiply this constant " C" by the square of the thickness of 
the plate expressed in sixteenths of an inch, and divide by the square of the 
pitch expressed in inches; the quotient is the safe working pressure *'P." 

Formula : P= 



15. Tube Holes either punched }i inch less than required diameter 
and reamed to full size, or drilled ; then slightly countersunk on both sides ; 
should be -^^ inch to ^-^ inch larger than diameter of tube according to size of 
tube ; if copper ferrules are used the hole to be a neat fit for the ferrule. 
Tube sheet to be annealed after punching and before reaming. 

16. Tube Setting. Ends of tubes to be annealed (in the Tube Mill) 
before setting. The tube to extend through the sheet y^ inch for every inch 
of diameter. Expand until tight in hole and no more. On end exposed 
to direct flame, flange the tube partly over on sheet, finishing by beading 

104 



tool which must not come in contact with the plate ; expand slightly after 
beading. 

Copper ferrules No. 18 to 14 wire gauge should be used in fire tube 
boilers on ends subject to direct heat. 

17. Riveted and Lap Welded Flues, as prescribed in Rule II, 
Sections 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13 of Regulations of Board of Supervising 
Inspectors of Steam Vessels, approved February, 1895. 

18. Corrugated Furnace Flues as prescribed in Sections 14 and 
15 of the same Rule. 

19. Stay Bolts to be carefully threaded with sharp clean dies "V" 
thread with rounded edges; threading machine equipped with a lead screw; 
holes tapped with tap extending through both sheets to neat smooth fit, so 
that bolts can be put in by hand lever or wrench with a steady pull; Y5 di- 
ameter to project for riveting over; with hollow stay bolts use slender drift 
pin in the bore while riveting and drive it home to expand the bolt after 
riveting. 

Height of nuts used on screw stays to be at least 50 per cent of diam- 
eter of stay. Largest permissible pitch for screw stays is 10 inches. 

20. Braces and Stays shall be subjected to careful inspection and 
tests as per Sections 6 and 2. Welding to be avoided where possible, but 
good clean welds to be allowed a value of 80 per cent of the solid bar. Rivets 
by which braces are attached, when the pull on them is other than at right 
angles, to be allowed only half the stress permitted for rivets in the seams. 

21. Manholes should be flanged in, out of the solid plate, on a radius 
not less than three times the metal thickness to a straight flange; when the 
plate is Yz inch or less in thickness a reinforce ring to be shrunk around it. 
Cast iron reinforce flanges never to be used. 

22. Domes to be avoided when possible ; cylindrical portion to be 
flanged down to the shell of the boiler, and this shell flanged up inside the 
dome, or reinforced by a collar flanged at the joint, the flanges double 
riveted. 

23. Drums should be put on with collar flanges of A. B. M. A. steel, 
not less than ^ inch thick double riveted to shell and drum and single riv- 
eted to the neck or leg, or the flanges may be formed on these legs. 

24. Saddles or Nozzles to be of flanged steel plate or of soft cast 
steel, never of cast iron. 

III. FACTORS OF SAFETY. 

25. Rivet Seams when proportioned as prescribed in Section 10 with 
materials tested as per Sections 2 and 3 shall have 4% as factor of safety ; 
when not so tested, but inspection of materials indicates good quality, a fac- 
tor of safety of 5 is to be taken, and at most 55,000 lbs. tensile strength as- 
sumed for the steel plate and 40,000 lbs. shear strength for the rivets, all 
figured on the actual net standing metal. 

26. Flat Surfaces proportioned as per Section 14 have in the constants 
there given a factor of safety of 5 or a little over. 

27. Bumped Heads proportioned as per Section 9 to be subject to a 
factor of safety of 5. 

105 



28. Stay Bolts proportioned and tested as per Sections 19 and 5 to 
have a factor of safety of 5 applied to the lowest stress found. 

29. Braces and Stays. When tested as per Sections 6 and 2 to be 
allowed a factor of safety of 5 ; when not so tested but careful inspection 
shows good stock they may be used up to 6,500 lbs. actual direct pull for 
wrought iron, and 8,000 lbs. for mild steel, all per square inch of actual net 
metal. 

IV. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE. 

30. The hydrostatic test, to be made on completed boilers built strictly 
to these specifications, is never to exceed working pressure by more than 
one-third of itself and this excess limited to 100 lbs. per square inch. The 
water used for testing to have a temperature of at least 125 deg. F. 

V. HANGING OR SUPPORTING THE BOILER. 

31. The boiler should be supported on points where there is the great- 
est excess of strength. Excessive local stresses from weight of boiler and 
contents must be avoided and distortion of parts prevented by using long 
lugs or brackets, and only half the stress which they may carry in the 
seams, to be allowed on rivets. 

The supports must permit rebuilding the furnace without disturbing the 
proper suspension of the boiler. The boiler should be slightly inclined so 
that a little less water shows at the gauge cocks than at the opposite end. 

E. D. Meier, Chairman. 

Henry J. Hartley. James Lappan. 

John Mohr. George N. Riley. 

James G. Mitchell. D. Connelly. 
James C. Stewart. 



.«i"l 



i tt rrll 



St. Charles St. Ry. Power House, 

NEW ORLEANS, LA. 

Contains 615 H. P. of Heine Boilers. 



106 



CHIMNEYS AND DRAFT. 

According to Data and Rules given in our article on Combustion (p. 13, 
etc.), we find that from 12 to 14 lbs. of air are required per pound of coal. 
Anthracites require the least, bituminous coals more in proportion to their 
excess in volatile constituents. Most authorities consider a surplus of air 
requisite for complete combustion, so that a total amount varying from 18 to 
24 lbs. of air per pound of coal is advised by various authors. 

Taking 13 lbs. as the average amount of air chemically required, and 
the air at 62° F. and chimney gases at 500° F., this means that in order to 
attain perfect combustion we must sacrifice from 6 to 12 per cent of the calo- 
rific value of every pound of coal we burn in drawing " surplus " air through 
the furnace. Besides this, there is a loss in the cooling of the gases, and 
thus lessening the quantity of heat transmitted to the boiler. A thorough 
mixture of the air and the coal gas would do away with the necessity of most 
of this surplus air and thus prevent these losses. We have seen (pp. 14, 
15) that an increase in the rate and temperature of combustion reduces the 
proportion of surplus air required. This means reduced grate area and in- 
creased draft, and points to high chimneys. 

What we call draft is simply the fall of the heavier (because colder) 
outside air to supply the place of the lighter (because heated) gases which 
rise from the furnace to escape through the chimney. We cause it artificially 
in a furnace just as wind is caused by the heat of the sun in nature. 

The difference in weight of the column of hot gas in the chimney and 
that of a column of the outside air of the same height is the force which 
causes the draft. 

It is customary to measure the draft in inches of water. We will assume 
the external air to be at 62° F. and that in the chimney at 500° F. A cubic 
foot of air at 62° F. weighs 0.0761 lbs.; and at 500° it weighs 0.0413 lbs.; the 
difference is 0.0348 lbs. For a chimney 100 ft. high we would have on every 
square foot of its cross section at the bottom an upward pressure of 100 times 
0.0348 lbs. = 3.48 lbs. A cubic foot of water at 62"" F. weighs 62.32 lb., 
i. e., a column of water 12" high exerts a pressure of 62.32 lbs. per square 
foot on its base; i" of water therefore means a pressure of 5.193 lbs. on a 
square foot or one of 0.577 ounces on a square inch. Our loo-ft. stack 
therefore shows a draft of 3.48-^5.193, equals 0.67 inches of water or about 
0.39 ounces of pressure per square inch. 

In the above we have considered the gases in the stack as of the same 
specific gravity as air. But this is not true. The chimney gases are a 
mixture of carbonic acid gas nitrogen and gaseous steam, complete combus- 
tion being assumed. 

Carbonic acid gas has a specific gravity of 1.529; nitrogen of 0.071; 
steam of 0.624 ; air being taken as the basis = i. 

Hence in place of air at 500° F. weighing .0413 lbs. per cubic foot, we 
have a mixture of gases whose weight varies with the varying amounts of 

107 




Brick Chimney at the Omaha & Grant Smelting and Refining Works, 

DENVER, COLO. 
Designed by Wm. M. Scanlan. 



108 



each constituent. These differ with different coals, and therefore different 
kinds of coal will cause differences in the draft of a given chimney, even 
when the temperatures involved are the same. The following table gives 
for five well known coals the number of pounds of air required per 100 lbs. 
of coal burnt, weights of the resultant gases, the number of cubic feet of 
chimney gases at 500^^ F. and the weight per cubic foot of- the mixture, at 
this temperature in the chimney. 

TABLE No. 63. 





V 

■^ 

o 

a 


Per Cent. 


Fer 100 Lbs. Coal. 


KIND OF COAL. 


P 

75 
O 


Fixed Carbon. 


Volatile Matter. 


< 


Air necessary for 
complete com 
bustion. 


Total weight of 
chimney gases, 
lbs. 


Cnbic feet chim- 
ney gases at 
500^ F. 




Anthracite (Pa.) 

New River (Bit.) 

Youghiogheny ** 

Mt. Olive '' 

Collinsville " 


A 
NR 

Y 
MO 

C 


1.81 

2.00 

6.80 
9.00 


86.75 
77.00 
59.00 
46.00 
32.00 


6.18 
18.00 
33.00 
37.00 
46.00 


5.26 

5. CO 

6.00 

10.20 

13.00 


1279 
1385 
1448 
1353 
1345 


1374 
1480 
1542 
1443 
1432 


31440 
34454 
36367 
34711 
35052 


0.0437 
0.0429 
0.0424 
0.0416 
0.0408 



These different weights of the gases of combustion then cause differ- 
ences in draft power of the same chimney, even when the temperatures 
of the gases and of the outer air are the same in all cases. Table No. 
64 is figured for certain average conditions of practice. The last line is 
added to show the results as usually figured on the assumption that the 
chimney gases have the same weight as air. 



TABLE No. 64. 



Draft Pressures Due to Different Coals, with Different Tem- 
peratures of Air, but same Chimney Temperature. Chimney 
100 Feet high above Grates. 



Gases of Com- 
bustion 
from 



A ... 
N. R., 
Y... 
M. O 
C... 
Air. . 



Weight 

1 Cubic Foot 

at 500'' b\ 



0.0437 
0.0429 
0.0424 
0.0416 
0.0408 
0.0413 



Weight 
1 Gabic Foot 
Air at 0*^ F. 


Draft in 

inches 

^ of Water. 


0.0864 


0.822 


0.0864 


0.837 


0.0864 


0.847 


0.0864 


0.863 


0.0864 


0.878 


0.0864 


0.869 



Weight 
1 Cubic Foot 
Airat62°F. 


Draft in 

inches 

of Water. 


0.0761 


0.624 


0.0761 


0.639 


0.0761 


0.649 


0.0761 


0.664 


0.0761 


0.680 


0.0761 


0.670 



Weight 
ICubicFoot 
Air at 102''F 



0.0707 
0.0707 
0.0707 
0.0707 
0.0707 
0.0707 



Draft in 

inches 

of Water. 



0.520 
0.535 
0.545 
0.560 
0.576 
0.565 



109 



The table further shows that difference in temperature of the outer air 
may affect the draft of the chimney to the amount of 50 per cent and over. 
In practice we find sometimes too little air, which shows inexcusably bad 
design or management, sometimes (though rarely) just enough, and some- 
times (see p. I3) amounts of surplus air varying from 10 per cent, to 100 
per cent, hi the former case we have imperfect combustion which may mean 
a waste of the entire volatile portion of the fuel, which by Table 63 may run 
up to 20 per cent and more of actual loss. 

In the other cases we have to draw into the furnace, heat and expel 
through the chimney varying quantities of inert air, which again represent 
various percentages of loss. The following table illustrates this : 

TABLE No. 65. 

Showing Weight and Volume of Chimney Gases from 100 lbs. 
each of Various Coals at 500° F. on the Assumption of Various 
Percentages of Surplus Air. 



Ref 


10% Surplus Air. 


25% Surplus Air. 


50% Surplus Air. 


100% Surplus Air. 


Letter 


Wt. 


wt. per 
Cub. Ft. 


Vol. 

Cub. 

Ft. 


Wt. 


wt. per 
Cub. Ft. 


Vol. 

Cub. 

Ft. 


Wt. 


wt. per 
Cub. Ft. 


Vol. 

Cub. 

Ft. 


Wt. 


wt. per 
Cub. Ft. 


Vol. 
Cub. 

Ft. 


A... 

N.R. 

Y... 

M.O. 

C... 


1502 
1619 
1687 
1578 
1567 


0.0435 

0.0428 
0.0420 
0.0416 
0.0409 


34540 
37814 
40187 
37981 
38322 


1694 
1826 
1904 
1781 
1768 


0.0434 

0.0427 
0.0419 
0.0415 
0.0409 


39190 
42808 
45447 
42891 
43182 


2014 
2172 
2266 
2119 
2104 


0.0429 
0.0418 
0.0418 
0.0415 
0-0410 


46940 
51154 
54207 
51071 
51310 


2653 

2865 
2990 

2796 

2777 


0.0425 

0.0416 
0.0417 
0.0414 
0.0411 


62440 
67854 
71747 
67431 
67570 



If we take for example Youghiogheny coal, we see that with 100 per cent 
surplus air the weight of the chimney gases has been reduced to 0.0417 lbs. 
per cu. ft. We have, then with the air at 62° F., a draft pressure of 0.66 
inches in place of the 0.649 inches of Table 64. That is a gain of IJ per 
cent in draft by admitting 100 per cent surplus air; but we have 96 per cent 
more in volume of gases to push through the chimney. If we still assume 
the temperature of chimney gases at 500° F., this surplus air (at 0.2379 
specific heat) requires 150592 H. U. to bring it from 62° to 500°. As this 
Youghiogheny coal averages 12800 H. U. per lb., it would take all the heat 
from 11.76 lbs. of coal to heat this surplus air, a loss of nearly 12 per cent in 
the efficiency or economy. 

If on the other hand we assume that the chimney temperature will be 
reduced, and no fuel is wasted in heating this surplus air, this total possi- 
ble reduction based on the same at 62° F., with the specific heat of air at 
0.2379, that of the gases of combustion at 0.2495, and that of the mixture at 
0.244, amounts to 207° F., entailing practically the same loss in heat, viz., 
151100 H. U. But with the chimney temperature at only 293° F. we would 
have only 0.023 difference in weight of inside and outside columns, or 0.44 
inch draft, in place of 0.65 inch, a loss of over 32 per cent in chimney 
efficiency ^or capacity. In other words this surplus air has reduced the 
velocity of the gases in the chimney nearly one-third, while giving us 96 per 
cent more gases to move. This shows forcibly that a low chimney temper- 



110 



€s«->\— ^ 



=^^^-^.., 



«-^- 



■*-----;- 



A-<s- 



ra:':': 



^»*».aw..x 



H 

f 

« 



Example for Iron Chimney, 
Designed by J. P. Withrow. 



Ill 



ature may snow waste ot fuel; it shows economy only when attained with a 
minimum of surplus air. 

The velocity per second of the gases in the stack is given by the formula 
V=l/2gh in which *'h" is the height of a column of the hot chimney gas 
whose weight is equal to the difference in weight of the air outside and the 
gas inside of the chimney. As we can express this head in inches of water 
''p," we get the formula V=Cl/P in which the constant ** C '' varies ac- 
cording to the composition of this gas. For the gaser. at 500° F. from the 
various coals above considered, the formula becomes : 

V = 87.2 i/p for Anthracite Coal. 

V = 87.92 l/p for New River Coal. 

V = 88.56 i/p for Youghiogheny Coal. 

V = 89.36 i/p for Mt. Olive Coal. 

V = 90.24 t/P for Collinsville Coal. 

For the entrance velocity of the air under the grate, we have for 62° 
F. the formula V = 66.1 VV 

These formulas give us velocities of 75 ft. p. second and over for the 
quite [usual draft pressure of 0.75 inch of water. But no such velocities 
exist in boiler chimneys. The reason is that only a small part of that differ- 
ence in pressure, which our draft gauge measures at the base of the stack is 
or can be utilized for producing velocity. The greater part of it is required 
to overcome the frictions of the grate with its bed of fuel, and that of the 
boiler flues or tubes. The ignoring of this fact has led to the oft repeated 
error that there is practically no gain in chimney capacity by an increase 
in the temperature of the gases, because their increase in volume counter- 
balances the increment in velocity. And thus the maximum capacity is 
stated as reached when the gases have about double the volume of the 
external air. On the other hand, an English authority, Mr. Thos. Box, 
shows that with a flue 100 ft. long from furnace to base of chimney, the 
maximum power or capacity is reached only when the gases in the stack 
have about 3 J times the volume of the external air, i. e., when their temper- 
ature has risen to nearly 1400° F. Neither of these views recognize that 
the character of the fuel, the thickness of the bed upon the grate, the 
methods of firing, and the proportions of the grate are really the determining 
factors in this question. And while it is true that temperatures as high as 
1100° F. have been observed in practice, they show very bad practice. 
But even in much more moderate limits an increase of stack temperature 
may materially increase the power or capacity of a given stack. 

Careful experiments are sadly needed for determining what fractional 
parts of the draft are expended in overcoming the various frictions men- 
tioned. But from a large number of boiler tests we may safely figure out 
that modern practice requires entering velocities of from 9 to 25 ft. per sec- 
ond for the air, and escaping velocities of from 7 to 30 ft. for the chimney 
gases ; and with due allowance for chimney frictions, we have then a total 
of from. 0.03 to 0.22 inch of draft required for these. The frictions in fur- 
nace and boiler are similarly found to run from 0.4 to 0.6 inch, making the 
totals range from 0-43 to 0.82 inch. With these data in hand wt can figure 

112 



out the probable effect of high chimney temperature in increasing the actual 
working power of a stack. 

^^ We will assume a plant with a chimney 100 ft. high, burning Youghio- 
gheny coal at a pretty brisk rate, taking 50 per cent surplus air, and chim- 
ney gases at 500° F. and air at 62° F. The stack at this rate is doing its 
duty well, and the plant is fairly economical. A demand for one-third more 
steam is made by those little additions to the machinery or increased direct 
use of live steam, which in the popular belief *'cost nothing when you once 
have a good boiler." The boiler and the Jireman have to get this steam some 
how. The only recourse will be such changes in the method of firing as will 
burn more coal per minute, and the only way to do it is by letting the gases 
escape hotter and thus get the increased draft. By firing oftener and more 
judiciously, the bed of fuel will not be much thickened and the friction here 
will be increased probably only one-fourth, and in the flues hardly that 
much. 

Suppose the chimney gases to go to 900** F. then the account will stand 
about as follows : 

Ordinary "Work 

Work. Increased. 

In percent 100% 133K% 

Stack temperature 500<» 900° 

Air 62° 62° 

Available draft 0.649 inch. 0.889 inch. 

Air entering at velocity of 10 ft. p. sec. 13.3 ft. p. sec. 

Gases escaping at velocity of 12 ft. p. sec. 23.0 ft. p. sec. 

Draft required for entering velocity 0.0230 inch. 0.0400 inch. 

Draft required for escaping velocity 0.0182 " 0.0676 " 

Draft required to overcome furnace frictions.. 0.6000 *' 0.7500 " 

Total expended 0.6412 " 0.8576 " 

Leaving balance available 0.0078 "■ 0.0314 " 

Total pounds gas from 100 lbs. and 133 Ibs.coal with 50% 

surplus air 2266 lbs. 3021 lbs. 

Total volume at 500° and 900° 54207 cu. ft. 101376 cu. ft. 

As these volumes bear to each other the same ratio as the velocities 
12:23, the stack is now doing its work just as well as before. In fact the 
balance of draft remaining could be used in increasing the velocity of exit 
to nearly 28 ft., i. e., carrying off nearly 22 per cent more gas in volume, 
equivalent to a further increase in capacity for coal burning of nearly 16 per 
cent. Or practically we can increase the capacity or power of the stack by 
nearly fifty per cent by increasing the temperature of the gases from bOO^ to 
900° F. The cost of doing this is of course very great. 

At 500° the chimney required for its total work of drawing in the air and 
expelling the gases about 13 per cent of the fuel burnt ; at 900" it requires 
25 per cent, a clear loss or waste of 12 per cent. 

The same result can be attained without a pound of additional fuel vy 
raising the chimney 40 ft. 

Table No. &Q illustrates this general question, but in applying it to any 
existing problem, careful measurements should first be made of existing resist- 
ances on the way from boiler front to base of chimney. 



113 



TABLE NO. 66. 

Showing Changes in Capacity of Chimney by Changes in 
Temperature of Gases, With Height Constant ; or Changes in 
Height with Temperature Constant. Air at 62° F. Weight of 
Gases, the Average of the Five Coals Considered. 



Temperature of escaping gases 
with 100 ft. chimney 

Per cent of total coal necessary to \ 
establish draft J 

Draft obtained in inches of water- • • 

Height of chimney for same draft, 
at 500° F., in feet 



) 

400° 


500° 


600° 


700° 


800° 


10 


13 


16 


19 


22 


0.56 


0.65 


0.73 


0.79 


0.85 


86 


100 


112 


121 


131 



900^ 

25 

0.89 
137 



We append a further table showing the effect on velocities and areas of 
chimneys from differences in quantities and mixtures of gases, and from the 
varying values as boiler fuels of the five coals considered. While this is 
figured on the basis of no surplus air, the ratios found will be but little 
affected by such surplus. 

TABLE No. 67. 



Velocities in % of A 

Quantities of gas in cub. ft 

Areas should be, in % of A for equal 1 

quantities of coal J 

Comparative evaporative efficiency 1 

in lbs water from and at 212° j 

Pounds coal burnt to be equal in effect \ 

to 100 pounds A / 

Equivalent chimney areas % 



Anthra- 
cite. 


New 
River. 


Youghio- 
gheny. 


Mt. 
Olive. 


100 
31440 


101 
34454 


102 
36367 


103 
34711 


100 


108.5 


113.4 


■ 107.2 


9 


10.5 


10 


7.5 


100 


85.7 


90 


120 


100 


93 


102 


128 



Collins- 
ville. 



104 
35052 

107.2 

7. 

128.5 
138 



The above considerations show the practical difficulties in the way of 
any general formulas for chimney height and area, and explain why the 
** doctors disagree " in regard to them. If we had exhaustive and complete 
tests on the amount of grate and fuel bed frictions under the severe condi- 
tions of modern boiler practice, and with different kinds, qualities and condi- 
tions of coal, probably all accepted formulas would, by substitution of new 
constants, be brought into substantial accord. But constants based on grates 
with 25 to 33 per cent air space, and on a consumption of 8 to 15 lbs. coal 
per hour per square foot of grate will lead to erroneous results in modern 
practice with 50 per cent air space and a consumption of 20 to 40 lbs. coal. 
Therefore our results must be modified by careful judgment based on well 
known local conditions. The best known formulas are Smith's, Kent's and 
Gale's. They are as follows : 



A = 



Smith. 
0.0825 F 



<0.0825 F\2 



A = 



Kent. 
0.06 p 



0.06 F\2 



Gale. 
A == 0.07 F^ 

180 / F \2 



, /0.0825F\2 , /0.06F\2 i 180/ t^Y 

In which " A " =- area, *' h " = height of stack in feet, '' F " = pounds 



114 



1 !i^[vSi^S^Nassv_ 



<7, 




-^ 



Brick Chimney at the Power House of the Union Depot Ry. Co., 

ST. LOUIS, MO. 
Designed by E. D. Meier, M. E. 



115 



coal burnt per hour, " t" = the stack temperarure, and ** G " = grate area. 
But in Kent's formula, " A " represents the effective area only, and he adds 
a ring 2" wide all around to allow for chimney frictions. Thus if the formula 
gives you a chimney of 41" diameter or of 36" square, you must make its 
actual size 45" diam. or 40" square. For 100 ft. height, Kent's formula gives 
a total area 11 per cent larger than Smith's for 250 lbs. coal per hour (50 H. 
P.) ; exactly the same for 500 lbs. coal (100 H. P.) J 18 per cent smaller for 
1000 lbs. (200 H. P.) ; 24 per cent smaller for 5000 lbs. (1000 H. P.) etc. 
The 5 lbs. coal per H. P. is merely a convenient assumption, and is based on 
an evaporation of 7 lbs. water per lb. of coal. The areas will vary accord- 
ing to the quality of coal, and such data on evaporation as local practice sup- 
plies, as indicated by our Table No. 67. 

Kent's formula has the advantage of recognizing the practical fact that 
for larger powers the area of chimney required per horse power becomes 
lers. 

The general form of Gale's formulas is more promising. But as his con- 
stants are based on observed data much smaller than those of best modern 
practice, they lead to rather too large results. But his making the height 
depend onl^* on the stack temperature and the rate of combustion is 
much more in accord with the facts than making height and area inter- 
dependent as the other two formulas do. With Gale's constants modified so 

120/ F \2 

that h = "TvlT/ ^^^ heights can be fixed and then Kent's formula for 
areas applied. The interdependence of height and area exists only in limits 
defined by practical observation. Outside of these the assumption leads to 
an absurdity. F. i. Kent's formula for area would give a 64" chimney 9 ft. 
high as equivalent to a 35" chimney 100 ft. high. 

Practical and local considerations generally fix the height required. The 
chimney must be higher than surrounding buildings or hills, else whenever 
the wind comes from the direction of the higher object, the draft will be 
seriously impaired. Then the nature of the coal must be considered. 

Mr. J. J. de Kinder, M. E., who has been engaged on a large number of 
boiler and coal tests for the Pa. R. R. and other large consumers, using tele- 
scop/c stacks to meet this very question, gives 75 ft. as height for the most 
free-burning bituminous coals, 115 ft. for slow-burning bituminous, and from 
125 to 150 ft. for anthracite coals. These latter being of three kinds, free- 
burning such as Lykens Valley ; semi-free-burning such as Delaware and 
Lackawanna ; and hard-burning such as Lehigh Valley ; they cannot be dis- 
tinguished from each other by appearance. 

DeKinder gives as necessary draft for anthracite 0.75 inch to 0.88 inch, 
and is in substantial agreement with Dr. Emery and Mr. Hague in this. He 
gives 20 to 25 lbs. per hour as mimimum rates of combustion, 40 per cent air 
space in grates for anthracite and 50 per cent for bituminous coals. 

We give in Table No. 68 appropriate heights and areas of chimneys for 
powers from 75 to 3100 horse-power ; based on an assumed evaporation of 7 
lbs. water per lb. coal, equivalent to 5 lbs. coal per H. P. per hour. 

For better or poorer coals any figures from this table can be readily 
modified by referring to the tables in the earlier pages of this article. 

If bituminous slack is to be used, the chimney should not be less than 



116 



100 feet high, and not less than 125 feet high for anthracite pea, or 150 feet 
for anthracite buckwheat. 

TABLE No. 68. 



1 


Diameter, 
Inches. 


HEIGHTS IX FEET. 


Area 

Square 

Feet 


75 


80 


i 
85 


90 


95 


100 


110 


120 


130 


140 


150 


175 


200 






COMMERCIAL HORSE POWEK. 


3.14 


24 
26 
28 
30 
32 
34 
36 
40 
44 
48 
54 
60 

72 

84 

96 

108 

120 


75 
90 


78 

92 

106 

122 


81 

95 

110 

127 
144 
162 






















3.69 


98 
114 
130 
149 
168 
188 




















4.28 


117 

133 
152 
171 

192 

237 
287 


120 
137 

156 
176 
198 
244 
296 
352 
445 
















4.91 
















5.59 


164 
185 
208 
257 
310 
370 
468 
577 
697 














6.31 


















7.07 






215 
267 
322 
384 
484 
600 
725 
862 
1173 












8.73 








279 

337 

400 

507 

627 

758 

902 

1229 

1584 

2058 










10.56 


* 
















12.57 










413 

526 

650 

784 

932 

1270 

1660 

2102 

2596 








15.90 














19.63 












672 

815 
969 
1319 
1725 
2181 
2693 






23.76 


















28.27 














1044 
1422 
1859 
2352 




38.48 


















50.27 
















198B 


63.62 


















9511 


78.54 


















29043100 












i 















Whenever it becomes necessary to have long flues leading to a chimney, 
the power of the latter becomes more or less impaired. We adapt the fol- 
lowing table from Mr. Thos. Box ; the ioial length of flue from grate to 
base of chimney must be considered. 



TABLE NO. 69. 






mney Draft by 


Long Flues. 




) 100 200 400 


GOO 800 1000 


2000 


[) 93 79 66 


58 52 48 


35 



Total length of flues in feet. • • 50 
Chimney draft in percent 100 

A further loss in draft results from any downward course of the gases in 
the flue. It may be roughly accounted for by using double the length of 
such down turn in making up the total flue lengths for the above table. 

Where several boilers lead into one chimney, a further factor comes in 
to reduce the required area. The heaviest work for the chimney is just 
after firing, since the friction through the fresh coal is greater and the tem- 
perature less than some minutes later. But it would be very bad practice to 
fire all boilers or all doors simultaneously. Hence the second and succeeding 
boilers do not require as much area as the first. It will be safe to figure 75 
per cent for the second and 50 per cent each for the third, fourth, etc. But 
it is advisable to increase the height slightly for each boiler added. 

E. D. M. 



117 



A MODERN BOILER PLANT. 



A good boiler plant is something essentially modern. Since Watt yoked 
the Power, and Stephenson harnessed the Speed of Steam to the triumphal car 
of modern progress, invention has been busy, throughout the civilized 
world, with improvements in all the elements of a complete steam plant. 

But owing partly to the fact that the engine seemed to offer more 
chances for experiment, and better opportunity for observation, and partly 
to the knowledge that the losses in the engine were vastly greater than in 
even a carelessly designed boiler plant, the engine has received by far 
greater attention. Even now it is not an unusual thing to find a steam 
plant in which every refinement of modern engineering has been carefully 
brought to bear in the design and construction of engine and shafting, while 
the boiler plant has been settled by prescribing the number of square feet 
of heating surface, and adding a few commonplace specifications about the 
steel, which can be as well filled b)^ a high sulphur steel as by good flange 
stock. Many an intelligent manufacturer will point with pride to his pol- 
ished Corliss engine, will show you model indicator cards from it, while 
neither he nor his engineer can tell you within 25 per cent what his boilers 
are doing. ^ 

It is not uncommon to find the boilers stowed away in some hole, so 
close, dark and ill-ventilated that no self-respecting skilled laborer will con- 
tinue to work in it, and a good fireman is emphatically a skilled workman, 
having charge of an important chemical process whose proper handling, in 
many lines of manufacture, determines whether the books will show loss or 
profit at the end of the year. 

Naturally enough, ill-designed, badly proportioned breechings or flues 
are often found in such places, connecting into chimneys neither wide 
enough nor high enough for the work expected of them. But within the 
last decade more attention has been give7i to the boiler plaiit. Much educa- 
tional work has been done by boiler companies, notably by one which 
annually publishes in its catalogue much useful information and many con- 
venient tables of data connected with steam generation, which are not else- 
where readily available to the average steam user or his engineer. Much 
credit is due to the large electrical companies who have boldly departed 
from antique superstitions, and have put as much thought into their boiler 
plants as into the other elements of their large installations. 

A boiler plant consists in the main of three essential parts, each one of 
which has its own important office in the success of the whole. 

First, there is the Chimney or Stack with its Flue or Breeching, to carry 
off the waste gases and to create the Draft, without which combustion in a 
practical and economic sense is impossible. 

Secofid, the Furnace or Setting, whose arrangement and dimensions de- 
termine the important elements of quantity and economy of coi?tbustio?i. 

Third, the Boiler, whose proportions and design must be such as enable 
it to absorb the maximum amount of the heat produced by the furnace, 
thus determining finally the capacity and economy of the whole plant. 
These separate and distinct ofiices of .the three component parts of a boiler 
plant are often confounded, not only by those to whom a boiler-room is sim- 

119 



ply a vague counterpart of the Black Hole of Calcutta, but even by those 
who claim to ''know all about boilers." How often is the boiler manufac- 
turer met by the question: ''Will your boiler burn slack?" or "tanbark" or 
some other fuel desirable because cheap. Aside from the fact that the 
boiler has usually very little to do with it, the question can only be answered 
by exercising the Yankee privilege of asking a few more. F. i. "How 
much draft have you?" or "What are the dimensions of your chimney?" 
the answer will generally be "a splendid draft," or "we have a fine big 
chimney built only a few years ago." But this gives the boiler man but a 
very vague idea. He wants facts and he does not get them. The splendid 
draft may prove to be, according to the personal equation of his informant, 
anything from four-tenths of an inch to an inch of pressure, the chimney 
may be anything from half to full capacity for the work in hand, and yet 
upon an accurate knowledge of these data the correct answer to the first 
question depends. 

THE CHIMNEY. 

The Chii7iney determines how many pounds of fuel can be burnt per 
hour, the quantity varying with the kind of fuel in very narrow limits, and 
also to some extent depending on atmospheric conditions. Its office is to 
remove the waste gases whose quantity varies but little whether smoke 
accompanies combustion or not, and to supply enough air to oxydize all 
the fuel. The Draft pressure is simply the difference in weight between a 
column of hot and therefore light gas in the chimney, and a column of air 
outside, of the same height and area. The greater the draft pressure, the 
greater the speed of the spent gas leaving and the fresh air entering the 
furnace, and hence the greater the quantity of fuel vfhich. the same chimney 
area will enable us to burn. 

This pressure, as explained, depends on the height and temperature of 
the column of waste gas; it may be increased at will either by making the 
chimney higher or allowing the spent gas to escape at a higher tempera- 
ture. The latter method is very wasteful and should never be resorted to 
except where the former cannot, for some local reasons, be adopted. Of 
course, with larger chimney area less speed will suffice for the same quan- 
tities of gas and air, and this fact is often urged to bolster up the antique 
superstition that a low chimney with ample area will do the same work as a 
tall one of less diameter. If this were true, removing the roof of the boiler 
house ought to prove a good substitute for an expensive chimney, and a 
gas globe might conveniently replace the broken chimney of a student lamp. 

It is just here that the nature of the fuel affects the matter. To cause 
combustion the air must be brought into inti?nate contact with all the particles 
of the fuel. With gas or oil this may be done with small initial draft. 
The, frictional resistance to the passage of the air through a bed of solid fuel 
of any kind increases with the decrease in the size of the pieces, lumps or 
grain of the fuel. Hence a sharper draft is required for sawdust or tanbark 
than for cordwood, for slack or pea coal than for nut or eg% coal. But the 
smaller the grain of the fuel the more surface is presented for the oxydizing 
action of the air, hence the more uniform the combustion. Therefore the 
careful fireman breaks his lump coal just before firing. 

Again most coals have two rates of combustion which give best economic 
results. One usually a very low one and hence hardly available in the very 
limited space generally fixed by modern conditions. The other is a much 

120 



higher one, the intermediate rates being frequently very wasteful. This 
higher rate makes more power possible in the minimum of floor area and hence 
meets modern demands. It developes higher temperatures, and, as great 
differences in heat favor its transmission, it makes more work possible in 
the boiler. 

Finally a strong draft in the chimney is less liable to interruption by gusts 
of wind than a sluggish one. All these considerations point to the tall 
chimney as the source and fountain of all the energies of a modern steam 
plant. 

The smoke stacks of the Pacific Mills, Lawrence; the Boston Edison 
Co.; the Narragansett Electric Light Co., Providence; Broadway Cable R. 
R. New York; Clark Thread Mills, Newark; Union Depot R. R.^ St. Louis; 
Chicago Edison Co., and Anheuser-Busch Brewery, St. Louis, are good ex- 
amples of modern practice in the matter of tall chimneys. 

The forty to sixty feet smoke stacks which were "plenty high enough" 
belo?ig to the past, with the old stone mills, the ram shackle engines with the 
gothic ornaments, low steam and timber bed frames. 

The Flue or Breeching connecting the furnace or setting to the chimney 
properly forms part of it. It should be of equal or slightly larger area and 
where changes in shape or direction cannot be avoided they must be made 
easy and gradual, carefully preserving the area at all points. Abrupt turns 
or contractions of area are known to interfere with the flow of liquids; fre- 
quent and facile observation shows this to every one, and tables are pub- 
lished showing the observed loss in effect by those of most common occur- 
rence. In the case of gases the effect is even more damaging, since the 
initial force is generally (in a chimney always) limited, while opportunities 
for observing this action are not frequent and have to be specially created. 
Therefore so many sharp turns and sudden changes in area are met with 
in steam pipes and smoke flues, which, a little thought would prove, should 
be avoided. Where one chimney serves several boilers, the branch of the 
breeching or flue for each must be somewhat larger than its proportionate 
part of the area of the main flue. 

Forced draft is sometimes employed with good success. It should be 
an adjunct merely, but cannot be made to replace a tall chimney. Com- 
bustion will not be as perfect under pressure as under a slight vacuum. A 
leakage of air inward through the furnace walls helps to supply hot air for 
combustion, and to some extent reduces and counteracts losses by radia- 
tion. But excessive forced blast which more than counterbalances the 
draft of the chimney will increase radiation and by leakage through the 
walls, doors, etc., outwards cause much loss. Worst of all it interferes 
with the fireman by making his work hard and unsatisfactory. 

THE FURNACE. 

The chimney having fixed the quantity of fuel we can burn, we must 
arrange our furnace so that it will do the best work within this limit. We 
must remember that the draft must be husbanded, its whole force to be called 
on only for our maximum effort. The kind of fuel and the nature of the 
service will determine \h^ proportions of our furnace. The furnace which 
will give excellent results on coal will be found inadequate for wood, if it 
be proportioned for the steady and regular work of a flour mill, it must be 
modified co meet the sudden and varying demands of an electric railway. 
The grate must, in area, in width and shape of air spaces, in length and 

121 



design of bars be adjusted to the kind of work the plant is to do, and the 
peculiarities of the fuel. Thus a baking and clinkering coal requires few 
and wide air spaces, a dry and friable one must have many and narrow 
ones. The total air space of the grate must be made as large as possible 
since it is the active element; the metal must be reduced in width as much 
as is compatible with strength. The surface of the grate must be as smooth 
and even as possible so as to offer no impediment to the use of the clinker 
bar and other fire tools. The longer time required for the perfect combus- 
tion of a fuel the larger must furnace, combustion chamber and flue be 
arranged. For sufficient air, high temperature, and time and space are 
equally important conditions of thorough combustion, and this must be 
completed before the gases are brought in contact with the heating (or 
here cooling) surfaces of the boiler. These rules apply to the various patent 
grates, stokers and furnaces as well as to the standard devices of established 
practice. And the best invention must in its application be supplemented 
by experience, calculation and design. The walls of a good furnace should 
have SiSfew openings, doors, etc., as possible, since every break in the bond 
of the brickwork increases the tendency to cracks, which can never be en- 
tirely avoided, but which cause leaks so detrimental to complete economy. 
Double walls with air spaces between them should always be employed 
where practicable, so that this unavoidable indraft through the cracks may 
be heated and utilized for secondary combustion. 

The lining of the furnace proper and the bridge wall should be made of 
a quality of fire brick which combines great refractory power with hardness 
and toughness to resist the abrasion due to the fire tools and the clinkers. 
The combustion chamber and flues may be lined with a cheaper grade since 
the heat is less and no abrasion possible. The cheap plan of using no fire 
brick abaft the bridge wall is wasteful in the end and therefore bad prac- 
tice. As no bond of either fireclay or mortar is absolutely reliable under fur- 
nace temperature, long and stout anchor rods should be used to tie the 
walls securely together. It is of course necessary to make the joints be- 
tween the furnace and the boiler as nearly air-tight as possible. This is best 
done by leaving joints wide enough to clear all projecting parts of the boiler, 
such as rivet heads, etc., and then filling them with some spongy material, 
f. i., tow or waste thoroughly saturated with fireclay. This is pliable 
enough to follow the movements caused by alternate expansion and contrac- 
tion without racking the brickwork or impairing the joints. By this arrange- 
ment the boiler can be made entirely independent of the stability of the walls. 
For all clinkering coals a cemented ashpit kept full of water is advisable. 

Having now designed a furnace, capable of burning our fuel to best 
advantage, little and slowly when the demand for power is slight, much and 
fiercely when the full load is put on, i. e. , having devised the best means 
for waking the sleeping force in the fuel to the active energy of living Heat, 
we want means to translate this into Mechanical Power. 

THE BOILER. 

The Steam Boiler furnishes the means. If we except certain dangerous 
vapors, steam, which is the gaseous form of water, is the substance whose 
expansive force grows most rapidly with each increment of heat. It has 
therefore become to civilized man the almost universal means of drawing 
active working force from the latent Sun-Energy stored up for him for ages 

122 




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past by provident Nature. In th.e furnace the energy of heat has been called 
to life; the boiler is now to absorb this heat and to transmit it to the watet 
within. This will first rise in temperature with less than five per cent ex- 
pansion, until a point is reached when each additional unit of heat absorbea 
changes a particle of water into the vapor we call steam. This change 
is accompanied by an immense increase in volume, and as the boiler im- 
prisons the steam and exactly limits the space it may occupy, each new 
particle thus changed crowds on those gone before and the imperative ten- 
dency to occupy more space begets the expansive force or pressure oi 
steam which our gage registers. To hold this pressure with safety, is the 
second office oi\.\iQ,ho\\e.x. If there be just room in the boiler above the 
water line, to contain one pound of water converted into steam at atmos- 
pheric pressure, the second pound thus converted crowds the first into hal) 
this space, appropriates the other half itself and thereby adds fully fifteen 
pounds per square inch to the origijially existing pressure, and so on with 
each succeeding pound of water which the heat absorbed changes into 
steam. At the same time each pound of water previously converted into 
steam must absorb a certain quantity of heat to enable it to retain its gas- 
eous form under this increased pressure, or some portion of it will 
fall back as water}'' spray. Every one who has seen a teakettle boil knows 
that the steam rises in transparent bubbles, which burst as they reach the 
surface, scattering spray to all sides but mainly upwards. The spray, be- 
ing water, has no expansive force, and when allowed to leave the boiler 
with the steam not only represents so much inert matter carried along but 
presents innumerable surfaces to invite and hasten condensation. The 
third office of a good boiler is therefore the separation of this entrained 
water from the steam. This is an important office and worthy of the ser- 
ious thought of the designer; yet it is often neglected in superstitious 
reliance on the fetich of an excessive amount of heating surface. 

The water with which boilers are fed is rarely even approximately pure. 
Salts of lime and magnesia are the most frequent impurities chemically com- 
bined, while much extraneous matter both vegetable and mineral is carried 
along mechanically. The latter as well as the carbonates are readily precip- 
itated at the boiling point at atmospheric pressure. But the sulphates 0/ 
lime and magnesia require a temperature of nearly 300° Fahrenheit to be- 
come insoluble and drop to the bottom; this is about the boiling point for 
water under fifty-two pounds gage pressure. While therefore the common 
exhaust feed water heater and the old time mud drum will, if properly pro- 
portioned to the work remove the mud and the carbonates, they will have 
no effect whatever on the sulphates. For it is matter of common exper- 
ience that you can almost hold your hand on the mud drum of a battery of 
boilers while they are under 100 pounds of steam, especially where the old 
method of feeding through the mud drum is adhered to, and an exhaust 
feed heater cannot yield more than 212° Fahrenheit temperature. The sul- 
phates make the hardest scale when allowed to bake on the heating surfaces. 
Their removal is therefore even more necessary than that of the mud or the 
carbonates. If a mud drum or other vessel is made part of the boiler for 
this purpose it must be placed where it will necessarily /^r/^^^ <?/" or approx- 
imate the steam tej?iperature.. The best modern practice removes all these im- 
purities by live steam purifiers, by chemical precipitation, or by filtration 

124 



after coagulation, before feeding the water to the boilers. But this best 
practice is not as yet the general rule, and these means may sometimes 
prove inadequate. Therefore a good boiler should be able to dispense with 
them,' or, when supplied, to supplement their work. 

The fotirth office of the boiler is then to remove all impurities from the 
water which may have escaped other cleaning agencies, and to deposit them 
at points where they do the least harm and can be readily removed. No 
means are so efficient for this purpose as positive and unchecked circulation 
through all parts of the boiler, to keep the heating surfaces swept clean; 
and the vessel to catch the impurities must be open to the main current. 
If it can be arranged so as to precipitate most of the foreign matter out of 
the water before it enters into the main circulation the result will be still better. 

The first office of the boiler, the absorption of the furnace heat and its 
transmission to the water requires thin and homegeneous metal for the heat- 
ng surfaces and a strong and positive circulation of the water. It is well 
Known that a tube or flue has much greater strength against internal than- 
against external pressure. It is much easier to produce and maintain cir- 
culation through a tube than round about it. Finally it is much easier to 
clean the inside of tubes thoroughly,than the outside when they are grouped 
close together in a boiler. An iron tube of standard gage will stand 
2,500 pounds to the square inch of internal pressure before rupture, and the 
rupture in the vast majority of cases is small and local. The same tube 
would collapse under external pressure much earlier, and once begun the 
collapse would be practically total. 

Mr. Thomas Craddock of England, found by experiment that a velocity 
of water two miles per hour over tube heating surface doubled its efficiency in 
heat absorption, and that this circulation became more important the less 
the difference in temperature between the heat giving and the heat receiv- 
ing body. Therefore in the ultimate economy of a boiler, to realize all the 
heat possible from the escaping temperature of the gases, circulation is all 
important. The water tube then best fulfills the first, second and fourth ol 
fices above explained, and must therefore become a fundamental element of 
the Modern Boiler. It is evident that for the third office, the separation 
of the entrained water from the steam, another element must be added to 
the water tubes. With few exceptions water tube boilers are supplied with 
a large drum or several drums or shells for this purpose. Observation of 
the boiling of water in an open vessel shows that the spray will, as the 
steam bubbles burst, fly upwards a number of inches. There is reason to 
believe that in a closed vessel under pressure it will not fly quite so far, 
certainly not further. Steam at 100 pounds gage pressure is about seven 
times as heavy as at atmospheric pressure, and hence occupies only one- 
seventh of the space. The same weight of water evaporated per second un- 
der the higher pressure, will rise to the surface in much smaller bubbles, or 
in a smaller number, or most probably both. The speed with. which the 
steam rises through the water depends on the difference between the weight 
of the steam and that of the water. At atmospheric pressure the water 
weighs 1,570 times as much, at 100 pounds gage pressure 213 times as 
much as the steam. For these two reasons then the speed and energy with 
which the high pressure steam rises will be much less than that observed at 
atmospheric pressure. Under normal conditions therefore there is less dan- 
ger of pri77iing or wet steam at high pressures than at lower ones. But if by 

125 




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accident or design a large valve be suddenly opened much entrainment fol- 
lows. This is because the sudden lowering of the pressure in the boiler 
temporarily increases the rate of evaporation enormously. This accounts 
for the geyser like action of certain boilers, mainly of a vertical type, which 
just previously have been working "like a charm," as soon as a sudden de- 
mand causes the engine valve to reach out for full stroke steam. From 
the above explanations it is evident that a reasonable height of steam space 
and a large surface at the water line will prevent priming under ordinary 
conditions, and some form of dry pipe placed well above the water line will 
take care of moderate fluctuations. If we can further so direct the circula- 
tion that the film of each bursting bubble is thrown in a direction contrary 
to the steam delivery^ we will have a living active force to counteract any 
rush of spray towards the steam nozzle. As these arrangements can most 
readily be made in a water tube boiler, this then best fulfills the third office 
of a good modern boiler, the separation of the entrained water from the 
steam. 

Compare for a moment the favorite type of fire tube boiler, the horizon- 
tal multitubular. Following the demands for a large heating surface, the 
tubes are crowded in close together and above the center of the shell, leav- 
ing only about one-fifth of its area as steam space, whose height is about one- 
fourth of the diameter. A recent report(A. B. M. A. 1892) shows that this ten- 
dency has gone so far that 30 per cent more tubes are put into boilers than 
the best rules for tube-spacing (A. B. M. A. 1889) warrant. This means 
that the steam space and the steam liberating surface have been much en- 
croached on. Not only is the water line brought up too near the steam 
nozzle, but the channel for the rising steam bubbles is so curtailed and cut 
up that they create great commotion at the water line, and increase .the ten- 
dency to prime. The upper surface of the water is generally accepted as the 
steam liberating surface. If all the steam were made on the surface of the 
upper row of tubes this would be correct. But all that is made on the bot- 
tom and sides of the shell, and on all the tubes below the top row has to 
pass the narrow spaces between the tubes of the upper rows. These are fre- 
quently but little over an inch wide, and have to serve for the return circu- 
lation of the water as well as the upward rush of steam mingled with water. 
Mr. Geo. H. Babcock, M. E.,in a very instructive lecture on the circulation 
of water delivered at Cornell in 1890, suggests an ingenious method of ap- 
proximately finding the speed of such rising currents. In a 60-inch boiler 
it would probably not be far from fourteen feet per second or say about ten 
miles an hour. Water rushing at ten miles an hour through a narrow slit 
will do a good deal of sputtering, and when it is half steam it will be practi- 
cally all spray. The four or five inch body of water over the top row of tubes 
has a slight retarding influence but the real liberating surface for the steam 
is nevertheless the aggregate of the narrow spaces between the upper tubes. 
Where there is any scale or mud present in the water, its location and ap- 
pearance after a fortnight's run shows that the bulk of the upward circula- 
tion in a horizontal tubular boiler is confined to a short section near the 
bridge wall, its speed decreasing towards front and rear till it meets the 
downward currents which are strongest near the ends of the boiler. This 
further concentrates the steam delivery on a small portion of the liberating 
surface. For this reason this whole type of fire tube boilers gives wet 
steam when forced. This has lead to insistence or^ more heating surface, 

127 



and this again when supplied without due increase in the other important 
ratios of tube spacing, hberating surface and steam room, serves, as we have 
seen, to increase the evils it is intended to remedy. It must of course be con- 
ceded that in the boilers of the water tube type with either tubes or drums 
placed vertically or nearly so, the tendency to prime is even greater than in 
the horizontal fire tube types. But in the types which have stood the test of 
years the tubes and shells or drums are horizontal or slightly inclined, fully 
half the shell is steam space, the vertical distance from water line to steam noz- 
zle is half the diameter or more, the upward current of circulation is deflected 
away from the steam opening, and the liberating surface is the largesv hori- 
zontal section of the shell, entirely free from tubes or other obstructions. 
Well designed boilers of this class have been forced to nearly double their 
rated capacity without approaching the amount of entrainment considered 
permissible in the horizontal tubular type at conservative rating. 

As these advantages are obtained with shells or drums of about half the 
diameter of fire tube boilers of the same evaporative capacity, greater safety 
at high pressures is the result. For the thinner metal has more strength per 
sq. in., and uniformity than thicker plate of the same quality. The rivet 
seams admit of more favorable proportions. Thin sheets can be better fitted 
than thick ones, etc. Thin metal transmits heat more rapidly than 
thick, and hence suffers less deterioration, and finally the nest of tubes 
in a water tube boiler protects the shell from the direct and fiercest 
heat, thus ensuring greater durability, and removing all danger of any 
chemical action of the hot carbon or sulphur on the steel boiler plates. 
The free circulation in a water tube boiler tends to equalize the tempera- 
tures all over the structure, thus preventing those dangerous strains due to 
unequal expansion. The old saw of '"ice at the bottom, water in the mid- 
dle, and steam on top" is but a slight exaggeration of what often occurs in 
a fire tube boiler, and many a * ^mysterious" explosion may be due to such 
a cause. These are some of the points of superiority of the boiler proper. 
In relation to furnace and chimney there are several more. 

In a firetube boiler the aggregate tube area limits the capacity of the 
furnace, and checks the work of the chim?tey. The cogent reasons against 
increasing it have been pointed out above. In a water tube boiler the flue 
areas can be freely proportioned to furnace and chimney and can even be 
udjusted to suit local conditions after the boiler is built and set, without dis- 
arranging any important ratios. 

It is well known that ashes and soot soon cut down both heating surface 
and flue area in fire tube boilers, and that flame entering a tube is soon ex- 
tinguished; careful experiments have shown ''that the quantities of water 
evaporated by consecutive equal lengths of flue-tubes decrease in geometrical 
progression.''^ (D. K. Clark.) 

In water tube boilers the ashes and soot find much less chance for lodg- 
ment, all the heating surfaces are constantly accessible, during service, for 
inspection and cleaning; the fiame is constantly regenerated since in impinging 
against successive water tubes effete combinations are broken up and new 
ones formed; ocular demonstration of these facts is daily possible. 

Finally, it is possible to concentrate more power in a single water tube 
boiler than in any of the fire tube types. Therefore considerations of 
safety, durability, economy, space and accessibility point to the Water Tube 
Boiler as naturally the basis of a modern boiler plant. 

128 



DESCRIPTION OF THE HEINE SAFETY BOILER. 



The boiler is composed of the best lap welded wrought iron tubes, ex- 
tending between and connecting the inside faces of two ''water legs" which 
form the end connections between these tubes and a combined steam and 
water drum or ''shell," placed above and parallel with them. (Boilers over 
200-horse power have two such shells.) These end chambers are of approx- 
imately rectangular shape, drawn in at top to fit the curvature of the shells. 
Each is composed of a head plate and a tube sheet, flanged all around and 
joined at bottom and sides by a butt strap of same material, strongly riv- 
eted to both. The water legs are further stayed by hollow stay bolts of hy- 
draulic tubing, of large diameter, so placed that two stays support each tube 
and hand hole and are subjected to only very slight strain. Being made 
of heavy metal they form the strongest parts of the boiler and its natural 
supports. The water legs are joined to the shell by flanged and riveted 
joi7its and the drum is cut away at these two points to make connection 
with inside of water leg, the opening thus made being strengthened by 
bridges and special stays, so as to preserve the original strength. 

The shells are cylinders with heads dished to form parts of a true sphere. 
The sphere is every where as strong as the circle seam of the cylinder which 
is well known to be twice as strong as its side seam. Therefore these 
heads require no stays. Both the cylinder and its spherical heads are 
thereiore free to follow their natural lines of expansion when put under pres- 
sure. Where flat heads have to be braced to the sides of the shell, both 
suffer local distortions where the feet of the braces are riveted to them, mak- 
ing the calculations of their strength fallacious. This we avoid entirely 
by the dished heads. To the bottom of the front head a flange is riveted in- 
to which the feed pipe is screwed. This pipe is shown in the cut with an- 
gle valve and check valve attached. 

On top of shell near the front end is riveted a steam nozzle or saddle, to 
which is bolted a Tee. This Tee carries the steain valve on its branch, 
which is made to look either to front, rear, right or left; on its top the 
Safety Valve is placed. The saddle has an area equal to that of Stop 
Valve and Safety Valve combined. The rear head carries a blow-off flange 
of about same size as the feed flange, and a Ma?ihead curved to fit the head, 
the manhole supported by a strengthening ring outside. On each side 
of the shell a square bar, the tile-bar, rests loosely in flat hooks riveted to 
the shell. This bar supports the side tiles whose other ends rest on the side 
walls, thus closing in the furnace or flue on top. The top of the tile bar is 
two inches below low water line. The bars rise from front to rear at the 
rate of one inch in twelve. When the boiler is set, they must be exactly level, 
the whole boiler being then on an incline, i. e., with a fall of one inch 
in twelve from front to rear. 

It will be noted that this makes the height of the steain space in front 
about two-thirds the diameter of the shell, while at the rear the water occu- 
pies two-thirds of the shell, the whole contents of the drum being equally 
divided between steam and water. The importance of this will be explain- 
ed hereafter. 

The tubes extend through the tube sheets into which they are expand- 
ed with roller expanders; opposite the end of each and in the head plates 

129 




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is placed a hand hole of slightly larger diameter than the tube and through 
which it can be withdrawn. These hand holes are closed by small cast iron 
hand hole plates, which by an ingenious device for locking can be removed in 
a few seconds to inspect or clean a tube. The cut opposite shows these 
hand hole plates marked H. In the upper corner one is shown in detail, 
H2 being the top view, Hs the side view of the plate itself, the shoulder 
showing the place for the gasket. Hi is the yoke or crab placed outside to 
support the bolt and nut. 

Inside of the shell is located the mud drum D, placed well below the water 
line usually paralled to and three inches above the bottom of the shell. It is 
thus completely immersed \n the hottest water in the boiler. It is of oval section 
slightly smaller than the manhole, made of strong sheet iron with cast 
iron heads. It is entirely enclosed except about eighteen inches of its up- 
per portion at the forward end, which is cut away nearly parallel to the 
water line. Its action will be explained below. The feed pipe F enters it 
through a loose joint in front; the blow-off pipe N is screwed tightly into its 
rear head, and passes by a steam tight joint through the rear head of the 
shell. Just under the steam nozzle is placed a dry pan or dry pipe A. A de- 
flection plate L extends from the front head of the shell inclined upwards, to 
some distance beyond the mouth or throat of the front water leg. It will 
be noted that the throat of each water leg is large enough to be the practi- 
cal equivalent of the total tube area, and that just where it joins the shell it 
increases gradually in width by double the radius of the flange. 

ERECTION AND WALLING IN. 

In setting the boiler we place its front water leg firmly on a set of strong 
cast iron columns, bolted and braced together by the door frames, dead- 
plate, etc., and forming the fire front. This is the fixed end. The rear 
water leg rests on rollers which are free to move on cast iron plates firmly set 
in the masonry of the low and solid rear wall. Wherever the brickwork 
closes in to the boiler broad joints are left which are filled in with tow or 
waste saturated with fireclay, or other refractory but pliable material. 
Thus the boiler and its walls are each free to move separately during expan- 
sion or contraction, without loosening any joints in the masonry. On the 
lower, and between the upper tubes, are placed light fire brick tiles. The 
lower tier extends from the front water leg to within a few feet of the rear 
one, leaving there an upward passage across the rear ends of the tubes for 
the flame, etc. The upper tier closes in to the rear water leg and extends 
forward to within a few feet of the front one, thus leaving the opening for 
the gases in front. The side tiles extend from side walls to tile bars and 
close up to the front water leg and front wall, and leave open the final up- 
take for the waste gases over the back part of the shell, which is here cov- 
ered above water line with a row lock of firebrick resting on the tile bars. 
The rear wall of the setting and one parallel to it arched over the shell a 
few feet forward form the uptakes. Oi\. these and the rear portion of the 
side walls is placed a light sheet-iron hood, from which the breeching leads 
to the chimney. When an iron stack is used this hood is stiffened by L 
and T irons so that it becomes a truss carrying the weight of such stack and 
distributing it to the side walls. A good example of this latter style of 
braced hood is seen in the half tone cut of the People' s Railway Co. , on 
paj.e where the four side walls of the three 200 horse-power boilers thus 
carry the heavy stack. In the Central Distillery Plant, (see halftone cut 

131 




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Detail of Water Leg, Hand Hole Plates and Yokes, etc., of Heine Boilers. 



132 



on page three of the 300 horse- power boilers are thus equipped, while 

the fourth boiler, put in later, carries its stack in the same way. In the 
Union Depot Ry. Plant, 1750 horse-power (see half tone cut on page 169), 
the hood is dispensed with and a long breeching, circle top, flat bottom, 
runs over all the boilers, its width spanning the distance between uptake 
walls ; over each boiler is placed a stout cast iron frame, bolted to the 
bottom of the breeching and containing a swinging damper. The Anheuser. 
Busch Plant, 2400 horse-power (see half tone cut on page 167 has a circular 
iron flue supported on I beams just over the rear aisle, into which short 
necks from the hoods open from the side ; each neck contains a swinging 
damper. We are often obliged by local circumstances to carry the breeching 
out forward or midway of the boiler to one side. There is no difficulty of 
adapting our flue connections ^o such conditions. Swinging dampers are 
always to h^ preferred; sliding dampers are apt to stick, and always require 
considerable force to move them. The cut on page 139 shows the style of setting 
generally used by us. With moderate firing and dry coals, it will practically 
prevent smoke. With highly bituminous coals and somewhat pushing the 
fires some smoke will result. The bridge wall is hollow and has small slotted 
openings in rear to deliver hot air into the half consumed gases which roll 
over the bridge wall into the combustion chamber. It receives its air from 
channels in the hollow side walls (controlled by small cast iron slides), 
through a cross flue at the rear end and a number of small flues under the 
floor of the combustion chamber, as shown in the cut. In the rear wall of 
the combustion chamber is an arched opening, closed by a cast iron door, 
which in turn is shielded by a dry firebrick wall easily removable. For 
special fuels, for smoke prevention, etc., there are now to be had various 
forms of furnaces, automatic stokers, rocking grate-bars, etc. Heine 
boilers have been set and operated successfully with these various devices. 
They are not all equally applicable in all localities nor adapted to the same 
conditions. As a rule we find that our customers or their engineers under- 
stand their local fuels and local conditions best, and we are always glad to 
adapt our setting to such of these devices as they may select. 

OPERATION. 

The boiler being filled to 'middle water line, the fire is started on the 
grate. The flame and gases pass over the bridge wall and under the lower 
tier of tiling, finding in the ample combustion chamber, space, temperature 
and air supply for complete combustion, before bringing the heat in contact 
with the main body of the tubes. Then, when at its best, it rises through 
the spaces between the rear ends of the tubes, between rear waterleg and 
back end of tiling, and is allowed to expend itself on the entire tube heating 
surface without meeting any obstruction. Ample space makes leisurely pro- 
gress for the flames, which meet in turn all the tubes, lap round them and 
finally reach the second uptake at the forward end of the top tier of tiling 
with their temperature reduced to less than 900° Fahrenheit. This 
has been measured here, while wrought iron would melt just above the lower 
tubes at rear end, showing a reduction of temperature of over 1,800° 
Fahrenheit between the two points. As this space is studded with water 
tubes swept clean by a positive and rapid circulation, the absorption of 
this great amount of heat is explained. The gases next travel under the 
bottom and sides of the shell and reach the uptake at just the proper tem- 
perature to produce the draft required. This varies of course according to 

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chimney, fuel, duty required, etc. With boilers running at their rated 
capacity 450° Fahrenheit are seldom exceeded. Meanwhile as soon 
4is the heat strikes the tubes the circulation of the water begins. The water 
nearest the surface of the tubes becoming warmer rises, and as the tubes 
are higher in front this water flows towards the front water leg where it 
rises into the shell, while colder water from the shell falls down the rear 
water leg to replace that flowing forward and upward through the tubes. 

This circulation, at first slow, increases in speed as soon as steam begins 
to form. Then the speed with which the mingled current of steam and 
water rises in the forward water leg will depend on the difference in weight 
of this mixture, and the solid and slightly colder water falling down the 
rear water leg. The cause of its m-Otion is exactly the same as that which 
produces draft in a chimney as explained in the discussion of ^^A Modern 
Boiler Plant ^'' page IIq. The maximum velocity will be reached when the 
mixture is about half steam and half water. As the area of the throat of 
the water leg is practically equivalent to the aggregate tube area (offsetting the 
greater amount of skin friction in the tubes against the reduced area of the 
throat), there will be nothing to interfere with i\x^free action of gravity and 
the full speed will be maintained as long as steam is being made. This circu- 
lation must be well borne in mind. It is forward through the tubes, upward 
through the front water leg, to the rear in the shell, and down through the 
rear water leg. At the forward throat of the shell the channel slightly en- 
larges by reason of two outward flanges of the water leg. This greatly 
facilitates the liberation of the steam, and is the best form of orifice. (Bate- 
man's experiments, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng'rs, 1866, gives this form of orifice 
95 per cent of theoretical capacity.) The deflection plate L assists in 
directing the circulation of the water to the rear. Thus the steam bubbles 
obtain a trend towards the rear, throwing the spray in a direction away 
from the flow of steam. It also has the effect of increasing the liberating 
surface. For each section of this moving surface of water, as it is deliver- 
ing its load of steam, sweeps rapidly to the rear, making room for the next 
section, thus constantly presenting a fresh surface for this work. 

The shallowness of the water at the front of the shell makes it easier 
for the steam to pass through; its depth at the rear ensures a solid body of 
water for replenishing the rear water leg and tubes. The height of the 
steam space in front removes the nozzle far out of reach of any spray; the 
deflection plate catches and deflects any sudden spurt, while finally the dry 
pan or dry pipe draws the steam from a large area, from three sides, thus 
preventing any local disturbance. These appliances make it possible to run 
the Heine Boiler 50 per cent above rating with less than one-fifth of one per 
■cent entrainment. 

The action of the mud drum is as follows: The feed water enters it 
through the pipe F about one-half inch above its bottom; even if it has 
previously passed the best heaters it is colder than the water in the boiler. 
Hence it drops to the bottom, and, impelled by the pump or injector, 
passes at a greatly reduced speed to the rear of the mud drum. As it is 
gradually heated to near boiler temperature it rises and flows slowly in re- 
verse direction to the open front of the mud drum; here it passes over in a 
thifk sheet and is immediately swept backward into the main body of water 
by the swift circulation, thus becoming thoroughly mixed with it before it 

1B5 



reaches the tubes. During this process the mud, lime salts and other pre- 
cipitates are deposited as a sort of semi-fluid ^'sludge" near the rear end of 
the mud drum, whence it is blown off at frequent intervals through the 
blow-off valve N. As the speed in the mud drum' is only about one-fiftieth 
of that in the feed water pipe, plenty of time is given for this action. Any 
precipitates which may escape the mud drum at first, will of course form a 
scale on the inside of the tubes, etc. But the action of expansion and 
contraction cracks off scale on the inside of a tube much faster than on the 
outside^ and then the circulation sweeps the small chips, like broken egg- 
shells, upward, and as they pass over the mouth of the mud drum they drop 
in the eddy, lose velocity in this slow current and fall to the bottom, and, 
being pushed by the feed current to the rear end, are blown off from the 
mud drum with other refuse. On opening a Heine boiler after some months 
service, such bits of scale, whose shape identifies them, are always found 
in the mud of the mud drum. Very little loose scale is found on the 
bottom of the water legs; the current through the lower tubes, always the 
swiftest, brushes too near the bottom to allow much to lodge there. 

This explanation of the action of the mud drum shows how the 
inside of the tubes may be kept clean. To keep the outside clear of soot and 
ashes which deposit on, and sometimes even bake fast to the tubes, each 
boiler is provided with two special nozzles with both side and front outlets, 
a short one for the rear, a long one for the front. They are of three-eighth 
inch gas pipe and each is supplied with steam by a one-half inch steam hose. 
The nozzle is passed through each stay bolt in turn, and thus delivers its side 
■jets on the three or four tubes adjacent, with the full force of the steam, at 
the short range of two inches, knocking the soot and ashes off completely, 
while the end jet carries them into the main draft current to lodge at points 
in breeching or chimney base convenient for their ultimate removal. An 
inspection of the cuts will show that the stay bolts are so located that the 
nozzle can in turn be brought to bear on all sides of the tubes. As soon as 
the nozzle is withdrawn from the stay bolt, this is closed air-tight by a plain 
wooden plug. 

In cleaning a boiler it is only necessary to remove every fourth or fifth 
handhole plate in the front water leg; the water hose, supplied with a short 
nozzle, can be entered in all the adjacent tubes, owing to the ample dimen- 
sions of the water leg. In the rear water leg only one or two handholes in 
the lower row need be opened to let the water and debris escape. The 
others in rear water leg are frequently left untouched for years. A lamp 
or candle hung on a wire through the manhead may be held opposite each 
tube so that it can be perfectly inspected from the front. Once or twice a 
year, where the water is very scale bearing., it may be advisable to take o££ 
all the handhole plates of the front water leg and pass a scraper through all 
the tubes in succession. Aside from the plain cylinder boiler there is no 
boiler so completely accessible for internal and external inspection as the 
Heine. The ashes which deposit in the combustion chamber are removed 
through the ashpit door in the rear wall, never allowing it to become more 
than one-third full. 

We furnish with each boiler a set of " Rules for operation " in a neat 
frame, adapted to be hung up in the boiler room. 



136 



SUPERIORITY OF THE HEINE SAFETY BOILER. 

In the discussion of A Modern Steam Plant we have pointed out the 
four principal oJfHces of a good boiler, and have explained why water 
tube boilers best fulfill the conditions of the problem. Without denying 
the merits of other systems of construction, we claim that the Heine boiler 
stands at the very head and front in the good qualities essential to complete 
performance. 

1st. It best absorbs and transmits heat; lience economy and capacity* 
2d. It will hold hig-h pressures with g-reatest safety. 
3d. It best separates the Steam from the Water, ensuring- Dryness* 
4th. It is best adapted to precipitate and discharge scale and mud. 
We ask a fair and critical examination of our description of the Heine 
Boiler, to which we shall refer in elucidating the above points. 

ABSORPTION AND TRANSMISSION OF HEAT. 

This, the most important work of the boiler, determines its economy 
and capacity, and must be discussed in connection with the furnace and 
the draft. For it is not sufficient to so construct the boiler that it will 
best absorb and transmit the heat, but it must also be so arranged that the 
heat can best reach it, and that nothing in its design will interfere with the 
best plan of furnace construction, nor increase unnecessarily the demands 
on the chimney. 

For absorbing and transmitting heat nothing can be better than a nest 
of tubes placed entirely in the flue, which the hot products of combustion 
must traverse on their way from combustion chamber to chimney, especi- 
ally when free and unimpeded circulation of the water is provided for. 
Mr. Babcock, in his interesting lecture on water circulation (Cornell Uni- 
versity, 1890), has shown with great clearness that it depends, not as some 
have supposed, on the amount of inclination of the tubes, but "is a func- 
tion of the difference in density of the two columns," the one of mingled 
steam and water, the other of solid water. The simple mode of calculation 
he suggests for finding the velocity of circulation gives us about twelve to 
eighteen feet as the average natural speeds for that general class of water 
tube boilers of which the Heine is a type. The cause of the circulation 
once understood, it is clear that any sharp turns or contractions which offer 
resistance to the flow will retard it in two ways. First, by altering- the 
conditions of equilibrium on which the speed depends. Second, since a 
river can not rise higher than its source, the speed lost by such an obstacle 
can not be reg-ained; the loss in speed at this point will therefore be mul- 
tiplied, at other points having larger areas, by the ratio those areas, bear 
to this contracted one. In most boilers of this class there are between the 
tubes and the drum several points where the contents of seven, nine or 

137 



even twelve tubes have to pass through an opening equal to one tube area. 
Every such place first disturbs the conditions on which the speed depends 
by absorbing some of the existing "head" (or difference in weight). Sec- 
ond, the maximum speed depending on the head can exist only at the least 
such opening, and hence in the nest of tubes the circulation will be re- 
duced to one-seventh, one ninth, or one-twelfth of the natural speed. 
In Heine Boilers there are no such contractions of area, even the smallest 
throat areas being 65 to 90 per cent of the aggregate tube area. 

The Heine Boiler g-ains another advantage from this fact. The water 
in the upper tubes having less "head," begins with less speed than that in 
the lower tier; the heating surface of the upper tubes will then be somewhat 
less active than that of the lower tubes. Since they get the first heat, 
more steam will be made in the lower tubes, further increasing the original 
difference in velocity. The combined effect is that the circulation through 
the lower tubes is much faster than through the upper ones. The obstruc- 
tions before noted will multiply this difference, since only the more rapid 
current will there make its way at the expense of the sluggish one. Thus 
the effectiveness of the upper tubes is largely curtailed. The full throat 
area of the Heine Boiler, on the other hand, leaves room for all the cur- 
rents, hence the full efficiency of the upper tubes is preserved. 

In the older types of this class of water tube boilers the tubes only are 
inclined, and therefore the return circulation in the rear has to pass through 
small tubes several feet in length, nearly vertical. The escaping gases 
pass around them, tending to create an upward circulation along the sur- 
face, which must somewhat check the downward flow. Everybody daily 
observes that water invariably "swirls" when it escapes through a small 
round hole or a tube from a wash bowl, bath tub or barrel. We all know 
how vexatious is the delay caused by it. This action, being independent 
of the surrounding pressure, takes place in the short tubes just mentioned, 
and retards the flow. 

In the Heine boiler this is done awaywdth. The water at the rear end 
of the shell is about a foot deeper than in front, the openings are large and 
rectangular, and the downward flow is through a rectangular chamber 
equal in section to the agg-regate tube area. Swirling is impossible and 
the tubes are fully supplied with solid water under all circumstances. 

The circulation of the w^ater is the life of all water tube boilers, 
Craddock's experiments show how its speed multiplies the effectiveness 
of heating surface. Details of construction which reduce it to less than 
one-fifth its natural velocity are therefore faulty, especially when this re- 
duced speed is found in the tubes. The Heine Boiler carefully avoids any 
such obstructions and the natural speed of circulation is maintained 
throughout. 

Therefore the effectiveness of its heating- surface for the absorption 
and transmission of heat is much g-reater than that of other boilers. 

All fuels require much air, great heat, space for expansion, and time 
for their complete combustion. An arched chamber, composed entirely of 
fire brick, would be the ideal furnace, in which combustion should be 
completed without meeting any cooling surface, the products when at their 
greatest temperature to be launched into and amongst the heating surfaces 
of the boiler. The nearer a furnace can be made to approach these condi- 
tions the better will be its work. The other extreme is the internally fired 

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boiler, whose performance on bituminous coals is very inferior in spita ot 
its smaller loss by radiation. Between them lie the return tubular boilers, 
and those water tube boilers whose furnaces are separated from their com- 
bustion chambers by the first pass of the nest of tubes. The heating- sur- 
faces of a boiler are such for the water only; in reference to the flame 
they are cooling- surfaces. Brought in contact with the gases at the be 
ginning of combustion they lower their temperature below the required 
point. This results in the direct loss of much of tlie heating power of 
the volatile part of the fuel which escapes unburnt, and in the indirect loss 
due to impairment of the conductivity of the heating surface owing to de- 
posit of much soot. As the first third of the heating surface thus encoun- 
tered absorbs between 60 and 70 per cent of the heat (Graham's experi- 
ments, 1858), it is useless to expect secondary combustion of any practical 
value in a com^bustion chamber placed beyond it, with no means of restor- 
ing the lost temperature. This method of construction probably grew out 
of the pretty widespread belief that heating surface placed at right angles 
to the course of the flame was much more effective than in any other rela- 
tive position. Even if this were true the old adage, "always catch your 
hare before you cook him," should induce prudent men not to allow its 
application to vitiate their furnace construction. It is probably true only 
for radiant heat; no experiments are adduced to prove it true for currents 
of hot gas; there it is plainly a case of "faith without works." On the 
other hand German experiments (Stuehlen Ing. Kal., 1892) show tube 
heating surface parallel to the current 30 per cent more effective than 
when placed at right angles. The Heine boiler setting approximates the 
ideal furnace. Fire place and combustion chamber are of fire brick, except 
that minimum of tube surface required to support the fire brick roof, ex- 
perience having shown that arches are too short-lived where the soda 
of the ashes under high temperatures fluxes the fire brick. The radiation 
from side walls and floor is arrested and utilized to pre-heat the small 
amount of air thrown into the gases at the bridge wall. Having passed 
the combustion chamber, flame and gases are thrown in contact with the 
whole of the tube heating surface, which they envelope and strike at all 
angles, the main trend being parallel to the tubes. Observation shows 
that they roll around, mix, break up, combine, etv^. , according to natural 
laws, and following many causes, to the apparent neglect of some single one 
the professor may lay down in the lecture room, or the draftsman prescribe 
by the conventional arrow. In the Heine boiler and furnace we arrange 
for space, time, air and heat for the best combustion, then open out into 
an ample flue, containing all the tubes, and like the Brooklyn alderman 
with the gondolas, "leave the rest to nature." The small tiles on the 
upper and lower tier of tubes make adjustments of flue areas, to suit local 
and possibly changing requirements, possible at all times. The trend of 
the gases is the natural one, rising gradually towards the stack. We thus 
avoid that loss in chimney power incident to pulling hot gases downwards 
against their bent. 

Having shown that with the most free circulation of the water, we con- 
bine the best furnace arrangement, the natural circulation of the hot gases, 
the equal exposure of the total heating surface to them, and the least de- 
mands on the chimney, we have explained why the Heine Boiler ranks first 
in economy and capacity. Our many customers will gladly attest the results. 

140 



The facilities for observing and cleaning the heating surfaces through 
the hollov/ stayboits have been fully explained in the description of the 
boiler. The effect of this on the economy and capacity must be here 
noted. As human naiure goes, the fireman will not begin to clean the 
heating surfaces until he has to. In the Heine boiler, as he blows through 
each staybolt in turn, the cleaned section and increased draft reward him 
at once by a rise in the steam pressure Avliile cleaning-. Under the old 
plan of cleaning through side doors in the walls, cold air rushes in, and 
the pressure drops while cleaning, and does not rise again until the work 
is completed and the doors again closed. Furthermore, the absence of 
these doors in the side walls of the Heine boiler makes them less liable to 
crack and leak. 

SAFETY AT HIGH PRESSURES. 

This depends on the qualities of the materials, the workmanship, the 
proper arrangement of the parts, avoidance of unequal expansion and con- 
traction, and accessibility for inspection, cleaning and repairs. 

We use no cast iron in any parts subject to tensile stress. In this we 
follow the rule laid down by the AMERICAN BOILER MANUFACT- 
URER'S ASSOCIATION (Proceedings 1889): 

CAST IRO^— Should be of soft, g-ray texture and high degree of ductile 
ity. To be used only for hand-hole plates, crabs, yokes, etc., 
and manheads. It is a dang-erous metal to be used in mud 
drums, legs, necks, headers, manhole rings, or any part of a 
boiler subject to tensile strains; its use should be prohib- 
ited for such parts." 
For shells, water legs and drums we use a first-class flange steel made 
for us and inspected before it leaves the steel works under the following: 

SPECIFICATIONS FOR BOILER PLATES FOR HEINE SAFETY 

BOILERS. 

STEEL.— Homog^eneous Steel made by the OPEN HEARTH process, 
and having- the following- qualities: 

l:E]S"SIIiE STRENGTH.— 55,000 to 62,000 lbs. per square inch. 

ELASTIC LIMIT.— Not under 32,000 lbs. per square inch. 

ELONGATION.— 20 per cent for plates ^q inch thick or less, 22^ percent 
for plates over re inch and under ^ inch thick, 25 per cent 
for plates ^ inch thick and over. 

TEST SECTION.— To be 8 inches long, planed or milled edges; its crosL 
sectional area shall not be less than one-half of one square 
inch, nor shall its width ever be less than the thickness of the 
plate. Every third test piece to be of the shape and dimen- 
sions prescribed by the rules of the United States Board of 
Supervising Inspectors of Steamboats. 

BENDING TEST.— Steel up to }^ inch thickness must stand hot and cold 
bending double, and being hammered down on itself; above 
that thickness, it must bend round a mandrel of diameter one 
and one-half times the thickness of plate down to 180° . All 
without showing signs of distress. 

NICKED SAMPLE.— When a sample is broken, after being nicked, the 
appearance of laminations or cold shuts, shall cause the re- 
jection of the plates represented by the sample. 

Ul 



AIAj tests. — To be made at the steel mill by ihe inspectors of the Robert 
W. Hunt & Co. Bureau of Inspection and Tests. 

CHEMICAL TESTS— Will be required, and if they show more than 0.04 
per cent Phosphorus, or more than 0.03 per cent Sulphur, the 
plates will be rejected. 

This is the same as the standard adopted by the Americal Boiler Man- 
ufacturers' Association, except that we have increased the requirements 

for elongation somewhat; we have further added the tests on the section 
used by the United States Board of Supervising Inspectors, to meet the 
requirements of cities prescribing the ''Marine" tests. It is well known 
that the same steel will show higher t. s. on the "Marine" section than on. 
the 8 inch section, but the latter is best for showing the elongation. 

The tubes are the standard American wrought iron boiler tubes, all 
tested by hydrostatic pressure at the tube mills. They are intended to be 
the weakest parts of the structure. As already explained, a tube giving 
way from internal pressure suffers a local rupture merely; the boiler will 
require several minutes to empty itself through a tube, resulting in a 
gradual though rapid decrease of pressure, an extinguishing of the fire, and 
no explosion. 

The staybolts are made of best butt-welded hydraulic tubing. The 
threads on them are therefore cut into solid metal all around, which 
would be doubtful were lap-welded or built up tubing used. They are sa 
proportioned that in testing to rupture they part in the solid metal but 
do not strip the thread. The ends are carefully peaned over. 

The rivets are according to American Boiler Manufacturer's Association 

standard, which we quote: 

'<^KIVETS to be made of good charcoal iron, or of a very soft, mild steel 
running between 50,000 and 60,000 pounds tensile strength 
and showing an elongation of not less than 30 per cent in 
eight inches, and having the same chemical composition as 
specified for plates." 

In all the processes of manufacture wc follow the best boiler shop prac- 
tice of the United States as laid down by the American Boiler Manufactur- 
ers* Association, as for instance in the rule for flanging: 

'* .'LANGING to be done at not less than a good, red heat. Not a single 
blow to be given after the plate is cooled down to less than 
cherry red by daylight. After flanging, all plates should be 
annealed by uniform cooling from an even dull red heat for 
the whole sheet in the open air." 

Having built up our boiler of the very best materials, and by the best 
methods of workmanship, we erect it in such a way that there can be no 
unequal expansion strains. 

The entirely free and unchecked circulation of water and fire has been 
fully explained; this equalizes temperatures not only when in full opera- 
tion, but as soon as the fire is lit. This can be verified by feeling the ends 
of shell and water legs when starting fires. Besides this there is another 

142 



equalizing tendency. The shell will stretcli more than the tubes from, 
the internal pressure; the lower tubes receiving g-reater lieat, will expand 

more from this cause. The two tendencies counterbalance beautifully, as 
can be verified by delicate measurements on any Heine boiler while cold 
and while hot and under heavy pressure. 

Our method of supporting the boiler on the water legs, the front one 
on a fixed support, the rear one on rollers, gives freedom for expansion 
without undue stress on any part. The weig-ht of the boiler filled with 
water is thus carried on its strongest parts. Most sectional boilers can 
not be thus supported, having in place of the water legs, loose, many- 
jointed constructions incapable of supporting any extra weight. 

It is evident that ours is a much better way to support a boiler than to 
hang it from a gallov^s frame by bolts or links. For these concentrate 
strains equal to the whole weight of boiler and water on two points of the 
shell, thus disturbing that equilibrium of stress obtained by giving it the 
cylindrical form. Another signal advantage of the Heine boiler is that it . 
is completed and thoroughly tested in the boiler shop before shipment. 

Our style of setting, with horizontal travel of the gases, has two further 
advantages over the up and down method. 

1st. The cold air which rushes into the furnace when the doors are 
opened for firing is drawn to the rear, away from the tube joints, in place 
of up and among them. 

2nd. The hot gases do not reach the shell until after passing the 
entire tube heating surface, being then no longer hot enough to injure a 
rivet joint; in the up and down type they make their first turn under a 
rivet joint of the shell, after traversing only a third of the tube surface, 
and in what is considered a combustion chamber hot enough to regenerate 
the flame. Hence our shells are safer! 

In all water tube boilers access must be had to each tube through some 
form of hand hole plate. Some have each group of two, three or more 
tubes controlled by a hand hole plate, some each single tube. Of course 
the larger each such plate the more danger of cracks, leakage of joints, 
etc. Elsewhere we have explained why only a few hand hole plates of 
each set have to be removed for washing out a Heine boiler. But besides 
this our hand hole plates are much safer than others in general use. A 
typical form for sectional boilers is shown below. T T are the ends of the.: 




148 



tubes and the joints are made outside as at J. J. on the cap C. On the 

inside is merely a yoke Y to hold up the bolt B. This of course necessi- 
tates another joint j under the nut. These joints have to be made tight 
wMle tlie Iboiler is cold; this requires a nice exercise of judgment, since 
strain enough must be put on the bolt both to counterbalance the internal 
pressure of the boiler when steam is raised, and enough more to keep the 
joint tight then. In other words, the stretch of the bolt has to be antici- 
pated and more strain added. And this double strain is always on the 
bolt whether the boiler is under steam or idle. It will not do to tighten 
up on the bolt when the boiler is under steam. For leakage around the 
threads will soon fill the hollow cap of the nut, which at any additional 
turn of the nut will crack it open by hydrostatic pressure. If we have a 
hand hole of 4j^ inches diameter w-e have an area of 15.9 square inches to 
cover. At 125 pounds steam pressure we have 1,987 pounds pressure 
under the cap and about 150 pounds more under the nut to counteract be- 
fore any strain becomes available to make the joints tight. It has often 
happened that a cracked nut has caused a cap to blow off, scalding the at- 
tendants. 




With the Heine boiler the case is reversed; the single joint at J 
is an inside one, this pressure of 1,987 pounds makes the joint, so that 

the bolts can be drawn up when under steam, receiving but a trifling strain. 
It is clear that this is the safe plan, while the other is not. We have thus 
shown that in materials, workmanship, general design, settings, and in de- 
tails of construction .he Heine boiler is the safest. 

SEPARATION OF WATER; DRYNESS OF STEAM. 

In describing the functions of a boiler in a modern steam plant we have 
shown to what causes the entrainment of water is due. The description 
of the Heine boiler shows how the entirely unchecked circulation tends 
^way from the steam nozzle. The steam bubbles, lighter than the water, 
pass through it on some diagonal course, a resultant from their own verti- 
cal trend and the backward flow of the water. This throws the spray 
.away from the vapor with a momentum about two hundred times that of 
the steam which flows towards the nozzle, with about one -fourth of the 

144 



speed it attains in tht^i steam pipe. The function of the dry pipe or dry 
pan is well understood. Add this, and the action just described, to the fact 
that the inclination of our shell removes the water line further from the 
steam nozzle than in other boilers, and the reason why our steam is always 
dry becomes clear. An active agency for drying the steam, present at al] 
times in the boiler, more vigorous the more the boiler is pushed, ensures 
dry steam always. On forcing- tests we have shown steam six times as dry 
as our competitors. This has a decisive influence on the every day econ- 
omy of a steam plant. 

PRECIPITATION AND DISCHARGE OF SCALE AND MUD. 

The Heine Boiler was originally developed under the difficult condi- 
tions of boiler practice in the great Mississippi Valley. The.piroblem was 
not only the economic utilization of the highly bituminous coals, low in 
calorific value as they are high in ash and volatile matter, but also the 
making of steam from water strongly impregnated witli mineral salts 
and frequently carrying a brown mixture of the sacred soils of several 
great States. 

The faults of the old style of mud drum were here but too apparent. 
The various ingenious coil devices choked up the faster, the more effective 
they were. The "Spray Feeds" wet the steam in the exact ratio of their 
efficiency in scale precipitation. The Heine mud drum, holding the in- 
coming feed water suspended for a time in an almost quiescent state, while 
subject to the external contact of a rapid current of the hottest water in 
the boiler, furnishes time, checked velocity and heat to induce precipi- 
tation. The necessity of a high temperature to make the mineral salts in- 
soluble has been before explained. Evidence of it is found in every boiler. 
It is well known that any reduction in velocity favors the dropping ol 
sediment. Instead of checking the speed of circulation in the tubes 
where the.precipitates do harm, the Heine boiler provides this mud drum 
where no fire can get at them to bake them into scale, but where they can 
be collected and blown off at such intervals as their amount prescribes. 

The fact that we have successfully replaced two-flue boilers in local- 
ities where return tubulars were tabooed on account of bad water proves 
tne practical efficiency of our free circulation and submerged mud drum. 



145 




Chicago Athletic Club, 

CHICAGO, ILL. 

Contains 300 H. P. Heine Boilers. 



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147 



Table no. n. 
Diameters, Circumferences and Areas of Circles. 







Advancing by 


lOths. 














Advancing by 8ths. 






i 


E 

3 
O 




u 
< 


E 

5 


E 

3 

u 


CIS 

< 


E 


E 

3 

u 




< 


E 


E 

3 




< 


E 
Q 


E 

3 
<J 

u 




C3 
< 


E 


E 

3 

o 
U 


< 



0,0,0,00000 
0,10,31416 
0,20,62832 



0,3 
0,4 
0,5 
0,6 
0,7 
0,8 
0,9 

1.0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 



2,0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 



3,0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

• 6 
7 



0,94248 

1,2566 

1,5708 

1,8850 

2,1991 

2,5133 

2,8274 

3,1416 
3,4558 
3,7699 
4.0841 
4,3982 
4,7124 
5,0265 
5,3407 
5,6549 
5,9690 

6,2832 
6,5973 
6,9115 

7,2257 
7,5398 
7,8540 
8,1681 
8,4823 
8,7965 
9,1106 

9,4248 
9,7389 
10,053 
10,367 
10,681 
10,996 
11,310 
11,624 
11,938 
12,252 



4,0 12,566 
^ 12,881 
13,195 
13,509 
13,823 
14 137 
14,451 
14,765 
15,080 
15,394 



5,0 15,708 
1 16,022 
16,336 
16,650 
16,965 
17.279 
17,593 
17,907 
18,221 
9 18,535 



6,0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

7,0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 



18,850 
19,164 
19,478 
19,792 
20,106 
20,420 
20,735 
21,049 
21,363 
21,677 

21,991 
22,305 
2.',619 
22,934 
23,248 
23,562 
2:^,876 
24,190 
24,504 
24,819 



0,000000 
0,007854 
0,031416 
0,070686 
0,125664 
0,196350 
0,282743 
0,384845 
0,5(»2655 
0,636173 

0,78540 
0,95033 
1,13097 
1,32732 
1,53938 
6715 
2,01062 
2.26980 
2,54469 
2,83529 

3,14159 
3 46361 
3,80133 
4,15476 
4,52389 
4,90874 
5 30929 
5,72555 
6,15752 
6,60520 

7,06858 
7,54768 
8,04248 
8.55299 
9,07920 
9,62113 
10,1788 
10,7521 
11,3411 
11,9459 

12,5664 
13,2025 
13,8544 
14,5220 
15,2053 
15.9043 
16,6190 
17,3494 
18,0956 
18,8574 

19,6350 
20,4282 
21,2372 
22,0618 
22,9022 
23,7583 
24,6301 
25,5176 
26,4208 
27,3397 

28,2743 
29,2247 
30,1907 
31,1725 
32,1699 
33,1831 
34,2119 
35,2565 
36,3168 
37,3928 

38,4845 
39,5919 
40,7150 
41,«539 
43,0084 
44,1786 
45.3646 
46,5663 
47,7836 
49,0167 



80 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 



9,0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 



10,0 
1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 



2?S,133 
25,447 
25,761 
26,075 
26,389 
26,704 
27,018 
27,332 
27,646 
27,960 

28,274 
28,588 
28,903 
29,217 
29,531 
29,845 
30,159 
30,473 
30,788 
31,102 



31,416 
31,730 
32,044 
32,358 
32.673 
32,987 
33,301 
33,6 i 5 

8 33,929 

9 34,243 



11,0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 



12.0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 



13,0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

14,0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

15,0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 



34,558 
34,872 
35,186 
35,500 
35.814 
36,128 
36.442 
36,757 
37,071 
37,385 

37,699 
38,013 
38,327 
38,642 
38,956 
39,270 
39,584 
39,8981 
40,212 
40,527 

40,841 
41,155 
41,469 
41,783 
42,097 
42,412 
42,726 
43,040 
43,354 
43,668 



50,2655 
51,5300 
52,8102 
54,1061 
55,4177 
56,7450 
58,0880 
59,4468 
60,8212 
62,2114 

63,6173 

65,03x8 
66,4761 
67,9291 
69,3978 
70,8822 

2,3823 
73,8981 

5.4296 
76,9769 

78,5398 
80,1185 
81,7128 
83,3229 
84,9487 
86,5901 
88,2473 
89,9202 
91,6088 
93,3132 

95.0332 
96,7689 
98,5203 
100,287 
102,070 
103,869 
105,683 
107,513 
109,359 
111,220 

113,097 
114,990 
116,899 
118,823 
120,763 
122,718 
124,690 
126,677 
128,680 
130,698 

132,732 
134,782 
136,848 
138,929 
141,026 
143,139 
145,267 
147.411 
149,571 
151,747 



16,0150,265 
li50,580 
2l50,894 

3 51,208 

4 51,522 



17,0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 



18,0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 



19,0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 



51,836 
52,150 
52,465 
52,779 
53,093 

53,407 
53,721 
54,035 
54,350 
54,664 
54,978 
55,292 
55,606 
55,920 
56,235 

56,549 
56.863 
57,177 
57,491 
57,805 
58,119 
58,434 
58,748 
59,062 
59,376 



59,690 
60,004 
60 319 
60,633 
60,947 
61,261 
6161,575 
761,""' 

8 62,204 

9 62,518 



20, 



43,982 
44.296 
44,611 
44,925 
45,239 
45,553 
45,867 
46,181 
46,496 
46,810 

47.124 
47,438 
47,752 
48,066 
48,381 
48,695 
49.009 
49,323 
49.637 
49,951 



153,938 
156,145 
158,368 
160 606 
162,860 
165,130 
167,415 
169,717 
172.034 
174,366 

176,715 
179,079 
181,458 
183.854 
186,265 
188,692 
191,134 
19-5,593 
196,067 
198,557 



21,0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

22,0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 



9 

23,0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 



62,832 
63,146 
63,460 
63,774 
64,088 
64,403 
64,717 
65,031 
65 345 
65,659 

65,973 
66,288 
66,602 
66,916 
67,230 
67,544 
67 858 
68,173" 
68,487 
68.801 

69,115 
69,429 
69,743 
70,058 
70,372 
70,686 
71,000 
71,314 
71,628 
71,942 

72,257 
72,571 
72,885 
7:-t,199 
73,513 
7.^,827 
74,142 
74,456 
74,770 
175,084 



201,062 
203,583 
206,120 
208,672 
211,241 
213,825 
216,424 
219,040 
221,671 
224,318 

226,980 
229,658 
232,352 
235,062 
237,787 
240,528 
243,280 
246,057 
248,846 
251,649 

254,469 
257,304 
260,155 
263,022 
265,904 
268,803 
271,716 
274,646 
277,591 
280,552 

283,529 
286,521 
289,529 
292,553 
295,592 
298.648 
301,719 
304,805 
307,907 
311,026 

314,159 
317,309 
320,474 
323,655 
326,851 
330,0-i4 
333 292 
336,535 
339,795 
343,070 

346,361 

349,667 
352,989 
356,327 
359,681 
363.050 
366,435 
369.836 
373,253 
376,685 

380,133 
383,596 
387,076 
390,571 
394,081 
397,608 
401,150 
404,70« 
408,281 
411,871 

415,476 
419,096 
422,733 
426,385 
430,053 
433,736 
437,435 
441,150 
444.881 
448,627 



0,000 
0,393 
0,785 
1,178 
1,571 
1,963 
2,356 
2,749 

3,142 
3,534 
3,927 
4,320 
4,712 
5,105 
5,498 
5,890 

6,283 
6,676 
7,069 
7,461 
7,854 
8,247 
8,639 
9,032 

9,425 
9,817 
10,210 
10,603 
10,996 
11,388 
11,781 
12,174 

12,57 
12,96 
13,35 
13,74 
14,14 
14,53 
14,92 
15,32 

15,71 
16,10 
16,49 
16,89 
17,28 
17,67 
18,06 
18,46 



6 18,85 
V8 19,24 
^^ 19,63 
3/8 20,03 
1/2 20,42 
5/8 20,81 



3/4 



21,21 
21,60 

21,99 
2^,38 
22,78 
23,17 
23,56 
23,95 
24,35 
24,74 



25,13 
25,53 
25,92 
26,31 

V2J 26,70 
^8127,10 

3/4127,49 
7/fe 27,88 

28,27 
28,67 
29,06 
29,45 
29,85 
30 24 
30,63 
31,02 



0,0000 
0,0123 
0,0491 
0,1104 
0,1963 
0,3068 
0,4418 
0,6013 

0,7854 
0,9940 
1,2272 
1,4849 
1,7671 
2,0739 
2,4053 
2,7612 

3,1416 
3,5466 
3,9761 
4,4301 
4,9087 
5,4119 
5,9396 
6,4918 

7,0686 
7,6699 
8,2958 
8,9462 
9,6211 
10,321 
11,045 
11,793 

12,566 
13,364 
14,186 
15,033 
15,904 
16,800 
17,721 
18,665 

19,635 
20,629 
21,648 
22,691 
23.758 
24,850 
25,967 
27,109 

28,274 
29,465 
30,680 
31,919 
33,183 
34,472 
35,7^5 
37,122 

38,485 
39,871 
41,282 
42,718 
44,179 
45,664 
47,173 
48,707 

50,265 
51,849 
53,456 
55,088 
56,745 
58,426 
60,132 
61,fc62 

63,617 
65,397 
67,201 
69,029 
70,882 
72.760 
74,662 
76,589 



10 



11 

V8 

Vi 

3/8 
V2 
5/8 
3/4 

7/fe 
12 

V8 

Vi 

3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/8 

13 

Vs 
Vi 

3/8 
V2 
5/8 
iV4 

7/8 

14 

V8 
% 
3/8 
V2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/fe 

15 

V8 

Vi 

3/8 
1/2 



7/8 

16 

V8 
14 
3/8 
1/2 

5/8 
3/4 



17 

Vs 
Vi 
3/8 
V2 

% 
3/4 
7/fe 

18 

V8 
V4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
^4 

7/fe 

19 

V8 
V4 
3/8 
V2 
5/8 
3/4 

7/^ 



31,42 
31,81 
32,20 
32,59 
32,99 
33,38 
33,77 
34,16 

34,56 
34,95 
35,34 
35,74 
36,13 
36,52 
36,91 
37,31 

37,70 
38,09 
38,48 
38,88 
39,27 
39,66 
40,06 
40,45 

40,84 
41,23 
41,63 
42,02 
42,41 
42,80 
43,20 
43,59 

43,98 
44,37 
44,77 
45,16 
45,55 
45,95 
46,34 
46,73 

47,12 
47,52 
47,91 
48,30 
48,69 
49,09 
49,48 
49,87 

50,27 
50,66 
51,05 
51,44 
51,84 
52,23 
52.62 
53,01 

53,41 
53, »0 
54,19 
54,59 
54,98 
55,37 
55,76 
56,16 

56,55 
56,94 
57,33 
57,73 
58,12 
58,51 
58.90 
59,30 

59,69 
60,08 
60,48 
60,87 
61,26 
61,65 
62,05 
62,44 



78,540 
80,516 
82,516 
84,541 
86,590 
88,664 
90,763 
92,886 

95,033 
97,205 
99,402 
101,6a 
103,87 
106,14 
108,43 
110,75 

113,10 
115,47 
117,86 
120,28 
122,72 
125,19 
127,68 
130,19 

132,73 
135,30 
137,89 
140,50 
143,14 
145,80 
148,49 
151,20 

153,94 
156,70 
159,48 
162,30 
165,13 
167,99 
170,87 
173,78 

176,71 
179,67 
182,65 
185,66 
188,69 
191,75 
194,83 
197,93 

201,06 
204,22 
207,39 
210,60 
213,82 
217,08 
220,35 
223,65 

226,98 
230,33 
233,71 
237,10 
240,53 
243,98 
247.45 
250,95 

254,47 
258,02 
261,59 
265,18 
268,80 
272.45 
276,12 
279,81 

283,53 
287,27 
291,04 
294,83 
298.65 
302,49 
306,35 
310,24 



20 



7/fe 



21 



22 



1/8 



23 



24 



25 



26 



27 
V8 
Vi 

3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/fe 

28 

V8 

lA 
3/8 
1/2 



29 

V8 

Vi 

% 

V2 

5/8 
% 
7/fe 



62,83 
63,22 
63,62 
64,01 
64,40 
64,80 
65,19 
65,58 

65,97 
66,37 
66,76 
67,15 
67,54 
67,94 
68,33 
68,72 

69,12 
69,51 
69,90 
70,29 
70,69 
71,08 
71,47 
71,86 

72,26 
72,65 
73,04 
73,43 
73,83 
74,22 
74,61 
75,01 

75,40 
75,79 
76,18 
76,58 
76,97 
77,36 
77,75 
78,15 

78,54 
78,93 
79.33 
79,72 
80,11 
80,50 
80,90 
81,29 

81,68 
82,07 
82,47 
82,86 
83,25 
83,64 
84,04 
84,43 

84,82 
85,22 
85,61 
86,00 
86,39 
86,79 
87,18 
87,57 

87,96 
88,36 
88,75 
89,14 
89,54 
89,93 
90,32 
90,71 

91,11 
91,50 
91,89 
92,28 
92,68 
93,07 
93,46 
93,86 



314,16 
318,10 
322,06 
326,05 
330,06 
334,10 
338,16 
342,25 

346.36 
350,50 
354,66 
358,84 
363,05 
367,28 
371,54 
375,83 

380,13 
384,46 
388,82 
393,20 
397,61 
402,04 
406,49 
410,97 

415,48 
420,00 
424,56 
429,13 
433,74 
438,36 
443,01 
447,69 

452,39 
457,11 
461,86 
466,64 
471,44 
476,26 
481,11 
485,98 

490,87 
495,79 
500,74 
505,71 
510,71 
515,72 
520,77 
525,84 

530,93 
536,05 
541,19 
546,35 
551,55 
556,7o 
562,00 
567,27 

572,56 
577,87 
583,21 
588,57 
593,96 
599,37 
604,81 
610,27 

615,75 
621.26 
626,80 
632,36 
637,94 
643,55 
649,18 
654,84 

660,52 
666,23 
671,96 
677,71 
683,49 
689,30 
695,13 
700,98 



148 



Table No. 72. 

Diameters and Circumferences of Circles, and the Contents 
in Gallons at One Foot in Depth. 



Diameter. 


CiRCUM. 


Area 


Gallons. 
1 Ft 


Diameter. 


CiRCUM. 


Area 


Gallons. 
1 Pf 










in sq. 


X r^i. 










in feet. 


1 PI- 


Ft. 


In. 

1 


Ft. 


In. 


feet. 


Depth. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. 


In. 




Depth. 


4 




12 


6^ 


12.56 


93.97 


13 


6 


42 


4% 


143.13 


1070.45 


4 


1 


12 


9;% 


13.09 


97.93 


13 


9 


43 


2^ 


148.48 


1108.06 


4 


2 


13 


1 


13.63 


101.97 














4 


3 


13 


^Vs 


14.18 


103.03 


14 




43 


11^ 


153.93 


1151.21 


4 


4 


13 


7J^ 


14.74 


110.29 


14 


3 


44 


^Vs 


159.48 


1192.69 


4 


5 


13 


io>^ 


15.32 


114.57 


14 


6 


45 


6% 


165.13 


1234.91 


4 


6 


14 


1% 


15.90 


118.93 


14 


9 


46 


4 


170.87 


1277.86 


4 


7 


14 


4% 


16.49 


123.38 














4 


8 


14 


7% 


17.10 


127.91 


15 




47 


IK 


176.71 


1321.54 


4 


9 


14 


11 


17.72 


132.52 


15 


3 


47 


10% 


182.65 


1365.96 


4 


10 


15 


2K 


18.34 


137.21 


15 


6 


48 


8K 


188.69 


1407.51 


4 


11 


15 


5>^ 


18.98 


142.05 


15 


9 


49 


oh 


194.82 


1457.00 


6 




15 


8K 


19.63 


146.83 


16 




50 


SVs 


201.06 


1503.62 


6 


1 


15 


11^ 


20.29 


151.77 


16 


3 


51 


0)^ 


207.39 


1550.97 


6 


2 


16 


2^ 


20.96 


156.78 


16 


6 


51 


10 


213.82 


1599.06 


6 


3 


16 


5M 


21.64 


161.88 


16 


9 


52 


7^ 


220.35 


1647.89 


6 


4 


16 


9 


22.34 


167.06 














5 


5 


17 


OVs 


23.04 


172.33 


17 




53 


4% 


226.98 


1697.45 


5 


6 


17 


3)i 


23.75 


177.67 


17 


3 


54 


2K 


233.70 


1747.74 


6 


7 


17 


6^ 


24.48 


183.09 


17 


6 


54 


11% 


240.62 


1798.76 


6 


8 


17 


9^ 


25.21 


188.60 


17 


9 


55 


^h 


247.45 


1850.53 


5 


9 


18 


OK 


25.96 


194.19 














6 


10 


18 


SVs 


26.72 


199.86 


18 




56 


6K 


254.46 


1903.02 


6 


11 


18 


7>8 


27.49 


205.61 


18 


3 


57 


4 


261.58 


1956.25 














18 


6 


58 


1^ 


268.80 


2010.21 


6 




18 


lOM 


28.27 


211.44 


18 


9 


58 


10^ 


276. IJ 


2064.91 


6 


3 


19 


7>^ 


30.67 


229.43 














6 


6 


20 


4% 


33.18 


248.15 


19 




59 


8K 


283.52 


2120.34 


6 


9 


21 


2>8 


35.78 


267.61 


19 


3 


60 


5% 


291.03 


2176.51 












1 


19 


6 


61 


3M 


298.64 


2233.29 


7 




21 


11% 


38.48 


287.80 ! 


19 


9 


62 


0)4 


306.35 


2291.04 


7 


3 


22 


9>4 


41.23 


308.72 1 














7 


6 


23 


6^ 


44.17 


330.38 1 


20 




62 


9% 


314.16 


2349.41 


7 


9 


24 


4>8 


47.17 


352.76 


20 


3 


63 


7h 


322.06 


2408.51 














20 


6 


64 


4% 


330.06 


2468.35 


8 




25 


1>^ 


50.26 


375.90 


20 


9 


65 


2K 


338.16 


2528.92 


8 


3 


25 


11 


53.45 


399.76 














8 


6 


26 


SH 


56.74 


424.36 


21 




65 


11^ 


346.36 


2590.22 


8 


9 


27 


5^ 


60.13 


449.21 


21 


3 


66 


9 


354.65 


2652.25 














21 


6 


67 


6K 


363.05 


2715.04 


9 




, 28 


3K 


63.61 


475.75 


' 21 


9 


68 


s% 


371.54 


2778.54 


9 


3 


29 


0% 


67.20 


502.55 














9 


6 


29 


loys 


70.88 


530.08 


22 




69 


IK 


380.13 


2842.79 


9 


9 


30 


7>2 


74.66 


658.35 


22 


3 


69 


mi 


388.82 


2907.76 














22 


6 


70 


&K 


397.60 


2973.48 


10 




31 


5 


78.54 


587.35 


22 


9 


71 


5% 


406.49 


3039.92 


10 


3 


32 


2^ 


82.51 


617.08 














10 


6 


82 


11^4 


86.59 


647.55 


23 




72 


3 


415.47 


3107.10 


10 


9 


33 


9K 


90.76 


678.27 


23 


3 


73 


OK 


424.55 


3175.01 














23 


6 


73 


9% 


433.73 


3243.65 


11 




34 


6^8 


95.03 


710.69 


23 


9 


74 


7}i 


443.01 


3313.04 


11 


3 


35 


4>^ 


99.40 


743.36 














11 


6 


36 


1>^ 


103.86 


776.77 


24 




75 


4^ 


452.39 


3383.15 


11 


9 


36 


10>^ 


108.43 


810.91 


24 


3 


76 


2K 


461.86 


3454.00 














24 


6 


76 


11% 


471.43 


3525.59 


12 




37 


8>^ 


113.09 


848.18 


24 


9 


77 


9 


481.10 


3597.90 


12 


3 


38 


5^ 


117.85 


881.39 














12 


6 


39 


3M 


122.71 


917.73 


25 




78 


6^ 


490.87 


3670.95 


12 


9 


40 


0^ 


127.67 


954.81 


25 


3 


79 


s?% 


500.74 


3744.74 














25 


6 


80 


IK 


510.70 


3819.26 


13 




40 


10 


132.73 


992.62 


25 


9 


80 


10>4^ 


520.76 


3894.52 


13 


3 


41 


7)^ 


137.88 


1031-17 















149 



TABLE No. 73. 

Wrought Iron, Steel, Copper and Brass Plates. 

Birmingham Gauge. 



No. of 
Gauge. 



0000 

000 

00 



1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 



Thickness, Inches. 



0.454 or Vi6 fuIL- 

0.425 

0.38 or^s fuil-- 

0.34 or V3 full— 

0.3 — - 

0.284 

0.259 or V4 full- 

0.238 

0.22 

0.203 or 1/5 full- 

0.18 orVie light 

0.165 orVe light- 

0.148 orVr full- 

0.134 

0.12 or Vs light- 

0.109 

0.095 or Vio light 

0.083 

0.072 

0.065 

0.058 

0.049 or V20 light 

0.042 

0.035 

0.032 

0.028 

0.025 orV^o 

0.022 

0.02 orVso 

0.018 

0.016 

0.014 

0.013 J 

0.012 

0.01 or Vioo 

0.009 

0.008 

0.007 

0.005 orV20o 

0.004 orVsoo 

1.00 inch thick---. 



Weight Per Square Foot, Lbs. 



Iron. 



18 
17 
15 
13 
12 
11 
10 
9 
8 
8, 
7. 
6, 
5 
6 
4, 
4, 
3, 
3, 
2, 
2 
2, 
1, 
1. 
1, 
1, 
1, 
1. 
0, 
0. 
0, 
0, 
0, 
0, 

0, 
0, 
0. 

0, 
0. 



.2167 
.0531 
.2475 
.6425 
.0375 
.3955 
.3924 
.5497 
.8275 
.1454 
.2225 
.6206 
.9385 
.3767 
.8150 
.3736 
.8119 
.3304 
.8890 
.6081 
.3272 
.9661 
.6852 
.4044 
.2840 
.1235 
.0031 
.8827 
,8025 
.7222 
.6420 
.5617 
.5216 
.4815 
.4012 
.3611 
.3210 
.2809 
.2006 
.1605 



Steel. 



41.5696 



18.4596 
17.2805 
15.4508 
13.8244 
12.1980 
11.5474 
10.5309 
9.6771 
8.9452 
8,2540 
7.3188 
6.7089 
6.0177 
5.4484 
4.8792 
4.4319 
3.8627 
3.3748 
2.9275 
2.6429 
2.3S83 
1.9923 
1.7077 
1.4231 
1.3011 
1.1385 
1.0165 
0.8945 
0.8132 
0.7319 
0.6506 
0.5692 
0.5286 
0.4879 
0.4066 
0.3659 
0.3253 
0.2846 
0.2033 
0.1626 



42.1236 



Copper. 



20.5662 
19.2525 
17.2140 
15.4020 
13.5900 
12.8652 
11.7327 
10.7814 
9.9660 
9.1959 
8.1540 
7.4745 
6.7044 
6.0702 
5.4360 
4.9377 
4.3035 
3.7599 
3.2616 
2.9445 
2.6274 
2.2197 
1.9026 
1.5855 
1.4496 
1.2684 
1.1325 
0.9966 
0.9060 
0.8154 
0.7248 
0.6342 
0.5889 
0.5436 
0.4530 
0.4077 
0.3624 
0.3171 
0.2265 
0.1812 



46.9308 



Brass. 



19.4312 
18.1900 
16.2640 
14.5520 
12.8400 
12.1552 
11.0852 
10.1864 
9.4160 
8.6884 
7.7040 
7.0620 
6.3344 
6.7352 
5.1360 
4.6652 
4.0660 
3.5524 
3.0816 
2.7820 
2.4824 
2.0972 
1.7976 
1.4980 
1.3696 
1.1984 
1.0700 
0.9416 
0.8560 
0.7704 
0.6848 
0.5992 
0.5564 
0.5136 
0.4280 
0.3852 
0.3424 
0.2996 
0.2140 
0.1712 



44.3408 



150 



TABLE NO. 74. 

Weight of Square and Round Iron. 



Side or 

DlAM. 



16 
% 
18 

y^ 

5/. 






Weight, 


Weight, 


Side or 


Weight. 


Weight. 


Side or 


Weight. 


Square. 


Round. 


DlAM. 


Square. 


Round. 


DiAM. 


Square. 


.013 


.01 


2 


13.52 


10.616 


5 


84.48 


.053 


.041 


% 


15.263 


11.988 


^ 


93.168 


.118 


.093 


K 


17.112 


13.44 


y^ 


102.24 


.211 


.165 


Vs 


19.066 


14.975 


K 


111.756 


.475 


.373 


y^ 


21.12 


16.588 






.845 


.663 


% 


23.292 


18.293 


6 


121.664 


1.32 


1.043 


% 


25.56 


20.076 


K 


132.04 


1.901 


1.493 


% 


27.939 


21.944 


% 


142.816 


2.588 


2.032 


3 


30.416 


23.888 


% 


154.012 


3.38 


2.654 


K 


35.704 


28.04 


7 


165.632 


4.278 


3.359 


% 


41.408 


32.515 


y^ 


177.672 


5.28 


4.147 


% 


47.534 


37.332 


y 


190.136 


6.39 


5.019 




54.084 


42.464 


K 


203.024 


7.604 


5.972 


4 










8.926 


7.01 


K 


61.055 


47.952 


8 


216.336 


10 352 


8.128 


% 


68.448 


63.76 






11.883 


9.333 


K 


76.264 


59.9 


9 


273.792 



Weight. 
Round. 



66.35 

73.172 

80.304 

87.776 

95.552 
103.704 
112.16 
120.96 

130.048 
139.544 
149.328 
159.456 

169.856 

215.04 



TABLE No. 75. 

Vulgar Fractions of a Lineal Inch in Decimal Fractions. 



Advancing by Thirty-seconds. 

1 


Advancing by Odd Sixty-fourths. 


w5 
■a 


(/) 

c 
_o 

tj 

u 

tu 

_1_ 
32 

1 

7 
■32- 

I 

1 1 
3^2- 

t 

1 3 

"3 2" 

tV 

1 5 
"3 2" 


7) £ 

'^ s 


vt 

■a 

hi 

.b <u 
.c <« 

17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 


c 
_o 

tJ 
(« 

u 
PU 

17 
•3^ 

A 

1 9 
■32 

f 

2 1 
32 
11 

2 3 

¥ 

25 
■32- 

\i 

2 7 
■32 

i 

29 
32 

il 

3 1 
■32" 

1 


1 = 


Vt 




VI 

h\ 

33 
35 
37 
39 
41 
43 
45 
47 
49 
51 
53 
55 
57 
59 
61 
63 


1-= 


1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 


0.03125 
0.0625 
0.09375 
0.125 
0.15625 
0.1875 
0.21875 
0.25 
0.28125 
0.3125 
0.34375 
0.375 
0.40625 
0.4375 
0.46875 
0.5 
1 


0.53125 

0.5625 " 

0.59375 

0.625 

0.65625 

0.6875 

0.71875 

0.75 

0.78125 

0.8125 

0.84375 

0.875 

0.90625 

0.9375 

0.96875 

1.000 


1 

3 
5 

7 
9 

11 
13 
15 
17 
19 
21 
23 
25 
27 
29 
31 


0.015625 

0.04687 

0.078125 

0.109375 

0.140625 

0.171875 

203125 

0.234375 

0.265625 

0.296875 

0.328125 

0.359375 

0.390625 

0.421875 

0.453125 

0.484375 


0.515625 
0.546875 
0.578125 
0.609375 
0.640625 
0.671875 
0.703125 
0.734375 
0.765625 
0.796875 
0.828125 
0.859375 
0.890625 
0.921875 
0.953125 
0.984375 



151 



Table No. tg. 
Lineal Inches in Decimal Fractions of a Lineal Foot. 



Lineal 
Inches. 


Lineal Foot. 


Lineal 
Inches. 


Lineal Foot. 


Lin«^al 
Inches. 


Lineal Foot. 


1 


0.001302083 


1 ' 
^ 8 


0.15625 


n 


0.5416 


1 


0.0026041G 


2 


0.1666 


0| 


0.5625 


1 
IS 


0.0052083 


2|- 


0.177083 


7 


0.5833 


1 
8 


0.010416 


2} 


0.1875 


u 


0.60416 


3 
T6^ 


0.015625 


2i 


0.197916 


n 


0.625 


1 
4 


0.02083 


2| 


0.2083 


7-1 


0.64583 


5 


0.0260416 


2| 


0.21875 


8 


0.66667 


3 
'8 


0.03125 


2| 


0.22916 


81- 


0.6875 


r\ 


0.0364583 


9 ' 


0.239583 


»l 


0.7083 


1 


0.0416 


3 


0.25 


8| 


0.72916 


A 


0.046875 


3i 


0.27083 


9 


0.75 


5 
8 


0.052083 


31 


0.2916 


n 


0.7708a 


1 1 
16 


0.0572916 


8| 


0.3125 


n 


0.7916 


3 
4 


0.0625 


4 


0.33333 


9| 


0.8125 


if 


0.0677083 


4i 


0.35416 


10 


0.83333 


i 


0.072916 


n 


0.375 


10 1- 


0.85416 


15 


0.078125 


4| 


0.39583 


10 4 


0.875 




0.0833 


5 


0.4166 


10 J 


0.8958a 


1 1 

^ 8 


0.09375 


n 


0.4375 


11 


0.9166 


1 1 

-^ 4 


0.10416 


5i 


0.4583 


lU 


0.9375 


1 3 

-^ 8 


0.114583 


5| 


0.47916 


11 i 


0.9583 


-| 1 


0.125 


6 


0.5 


11 1 


0.97916 


1 5 


0.135416 


n 


0.52083 


12 


1.000 


1 3 


0.14583 










4 











The Jirs^ cost of a boiler is a fixed quantity. The cost of operation is one 
continuing during the life of the boiler. Given the relative cost of tubular 
and water-tube boilers, and the cost of fuel, it is a simple arithmetical calcu- 
lation to determine what percentage of economy there must be in water-tube 
boilers in order to earn back their extra first cost. Of course no one who 
understands the subject, now doubts that there is some advantage in water- 
tube boilers in point of economy of operation and repairs. Take this per- 
centage of economy at the minimum — say only 10% — and see how short a 
time it takes to amount to more than the cost of the boiler. It will surprise 
you. 



152 



Table no. 77. 
Square Inches in Decimal Fractions of a Square Foot. 



Square 
Inches. 


Square 
Foot. 


Square 
Inches. 


Square 
Foot. 


Square 
Inches. 


Square 
Foot. 

1 


Square 
Inches. 


Square 
Foot. 


0.10 


0.0006944 1 


24.0 


0.16666 


65.0 


0.45138 


105.0 


0.72916 


0.15 


0.0010416 ! 

1 


25.0 


0.17361 


66.0 


0.45833 


106.0 


0.73611 


0.20 


0.001388 


26.0 


0.18055 


67.0 


0.46527 


107.0 


0.74305 


0.25 


0.001 73G1 


27.0 


0.18750 


68.0 


0.47222 i 


108.0 


0.75000 


0.30 


0.002083 


28.0 


0.19444 


69.0 


0.47916 


109.0 


0.75694 


0.35 


0.0024305 


29.0 


0.20138 


70.0 


0.48611 


110.0 


0.76388 


0.40 


0.002777 1 


30.0 


0.20833 


71.0 


0.49305 


111.0 


0.77083 


0.45 


0.00311249 : 


31.0 


0.21527 


72.0 


0.50000 


112.0 


0.77777 


0.50 


0.003472 


32.0 


0.22222 


73.0 


0.50694 


113.0 


0.78472 


0.55 


0.0038194 


33.0 


0.22916 


74.0 


0.51388 


114.0 


0.79166 


0.60 


0.004166 


34.0 


0.23611 


75.0 


0.52083 ! 


115.0 


0.79861 


0.65 


0.0045138 


35.0 


0.24305 


76.0 


0.52777 ! 


116.0 


0.80555 


0.70 


0.004861 


36.0 


0.25000 


77.0 


0.53472 


117.0 


0.8124<> 


0.75 


0.0052083 


37.0 i 

1 


0.25694 


78.0 


0.54166 


118.0 


0.81944 


0.80 


0.005i55o 


38.0 


0.26388 


79.0 


0.54861 


119.0 


0.82638 


0.85 


0.0059027 


39.0 


0.27083 1 


80.0 


0.55555 : 


120.0 


0.83333 


0.90 


0.006250 


40.0 


0.27777 


81.0 


0.56249 1 


121.0 


0.84027 


0.95 


0.0065972 


41.0 


0.28472 ; 


82.0 


0.56944 


122.0 


S4722 


' 1.0 


0.006944 


42.0 


0.29166 


83.0 


0.57638 


123.0 


0.85416 


2.0 


0.01388 


43.0 


0.29861 i 


84.0 


0.58333 [ 


124.0 


0.86111 


3.0 


0.02083 


44.0 


0.30555 I 


85.0 


0.59027 


125.0 


0.86805 


4.0 


0.02777 


45.0 


0.31249 1 


86.0 


0.59722 


126.0 


0.87500 


5.0 


0.03472 


46.0 


0.31944 


87.0 


0.60416 


127.0 


0.88194 


6.0 


0.04166 


47.0 


0.32638 


88.0 


0.61111 


128.0 


0.88888 


7.0 


0.04861 


48.0 


0.33333 


89.0 


0.61805 ' 


129.0 


0.89583 


8.0 


0.05555 


49.0 


0.34027 ^ 


90.0 


0.62500 


130.0 


0.90277 


9.0 


0.06250 


50.0 


0.34722 


91.0 


0.63104 


131.0 


0.90972 


10.0 


0.06944 


1 51.0 


0.35416 


92.0 


0.63888 


132.0 


0.91666 


11.0 


0.07638 


52.0 


0.36111 


93.0 


0.64583 


133.0 


0.92361 


12.0 


0.08333 


53.0 


0.36805 


94.0 


0.65277 


134.0 


0.93055 


13.0 


0.09027 


54.0 


0.37500 


95.0 


0.65972 


135.0 


0.9375a 


14.0 


0.09722 


55.0 


0.38194 


96.0 


0.66666 


136.0 


0.94444 


, 15.0 


0.10416 


56.0 


0.38888 


97.0 


0.67361 


137.0 


0.95138 


16.0 


0.11111 


57.0 


0.39583 


98.0 


0.68055 


138.0 


0.95833 


17.0 


0.11805 


58.0 


0.40277 


99.0 


0.68750 


139.0 


0.96527 


18.0 


0.12500 


59.0 


0.40972 


100.0 


0.69444 


140.0 


0.97222 


19.0 


0.13194 


60.0 


0.41666 


101.0 


0.70138 


' 141.0 


0.97916 


20.0 


0.13888 


61.0 


0.42361 


; 102.0 


0.70833 


142.0 


0.98611 


21.0 


0.14583 


62.0 


0.43055 


103.0 


0.71527 


143.0 


0.9930^ 


22.0 


0.15277 


63.0 


0.43750 


104.0 


0.72222 


144.0 


1.0000 


23.0 


0.15972 


64.0 


0.44444 











153 



Table No. 78. 
Decimal Fractions of a Square Foot in Square Inches, 



Square 
Foot. 


Square 
Inches. 


Square 
Foot. 


Square 
Inches. 


Square 
Foot. 


Square 
Inches, 


Square 
Foot, 


Square 
Inches. 


0.01 


1.44 


0.26 


37.4 


0.51 


73.4 


0.76 


109.4 


0.02 


2.88 


0.27 


38.9 


0.52 


74.9 


0.77 


110.9 


0.03 


4.32 


0.28 


40.3 


0.53 


76.3 


0.78 


112.3 


0.04 


5.76 


0.29 


41.8 


0.54 


77.8 


0.79 


113.8 


0.05 


7.20 


0.30 


43.2 


0.55 


79.2 


0.80 


115.2 


0.06 


. 8.64 


0.31 


44.6 


0.56 


80.6 


0.81 


116.6 


0.07 


10.1 


0.32 


46.1 


0.57 


82.1 


0.82 


118.1 


0.08 


11.5 


0.33 


47.5 


0.58 


83.5 


0.83 


119.5 


0.09 


13.0 


0.34 


49.0 


0.59 


85.0 


0.84 


121.0 


0.10 


14.4 


0.85 


50.4 


0.60 


86.4 


0.85 


122.4 


0.11 


15.8 


0.36 


51.8 


0.61 


87.8 


0.86 


123.8 


0.12 


17.3 


0.37 


53.3 


0.62 


89.3 


0.87 


125.3 


0.13 


18.7 


0.38 


54.7 


0.63 


90.7 


0.88 


126.7 


0.14 


20.2 


0.39 


56.2 


0.64 


92.2 


0.89 


128.2 


0.15 


21.6 


0.40 


57.6 


0.65 


93.6 


0.90 


129.6 


0.16 


23.0 


0.41 


58.0 


0.66 


95.0 


0.91 


131.0 


0.17 


24.5 


0.42 


60.5 


0.67 


96.5 


0.92 


132.5 


0.18 


25.9 


0.43 


61.9 


0.68 


97.9 


0.93 


133.9 


0.19 


27.4 


0.44 


63.4 


0.69 


99.4 


0.94 


135.4 


0.20 


28.8 


0.45 


64.8 


0.70 


100.8 


0.95 


136.8 


0.21 


30.2 


0.46 


66.2 


0.71 


102.2 


0.96 


138.2 


0.22 


31.7 


0.47 


67.7 


0.72 


103.7 


0.97 


139.7 


0.23 


33.1 


0.48 


69.1 


0.73 


105.1 


0.98 


141.1 


0.24 


34.6 


0.49 


70.6 


0.74 


106.6 


0.99 


142.6 


0.25 


36.0 


0.50 


72.0 


0.75 


108.0 


1.00 


144.0 



How many large modern boiler plants are now constructed with old 
style flue and tubular boilers — boilers in which circulation is in spite of, and 
not because of, their design and construction ? Among the big new installa- 
tions there are twenty water-tube plants now to every one of the old style. 
Yet many small boiler users still fail to grasp the fact that the economy of 
water-tube boilers is **a condition " and not ''a theory." 



154 



TABLE NO. 79. 



French Measures of Length with U. S. Equivalents, 



• 




Metres. 


U. S. Equivalents. 




1 millimetre 


0.001 

0.01 

0.1 

1.0 

10.0 

100.0 

] 000.0 

10000.0 


03937 inch 


10 millimetres 

10 centimetres- -- 


1 centimetre 

1 decimetre- 


0.3937 inch. 
3 93704 inches 


10 decimetres "l 

100 centimetres > 


1 METRE- 


r 39.3704 inches. 
I 3.2809 feet. 

32 8087 feet 


1000 millimetres J 

10 metres 


1 decametre - 


10 decametres 

10 hectometres 

10 kilometres 


1 hectometre 

1 KILOMETRE 

1 myriametre 


328.0869 feet. 
3280.869 feet. 
6.21377 miles. 



TABLE No. 80. 



French Measures of Surface with U. S. Equivalents. 



100 sq. millimetres --- 

100 sq. centimetres 1 sq 

100 sq. decimetres \ -, 

10000 sq. centimetres--/ ^^ 



1 sq. 
1 sq. 
1 sq. 



10000 sq 

100 sq. metres 



100 sq. decametres- 

100 sq. hectometres 
100 sq. kilometres- - 



1 sq. 

1 sq. 

1 sq. 
1 sq. 



millimetre - 
centimeter- 
decimetre-- 

METRE--- 
decametre - 
hectometre - 
kilometre-- 
myriametre 



Square Metres. 



0.000001 

0.0001 

0.01 

1.0 

100.0 

10,000.0 

1,000,000.0 
100,000,000.0 



U. S. Equivalents. 



0.00155 sq. inches. 

0.155 sq. inches. 

15.5003 sq. inches, 
r 10.7641 sq. feet. 
1 1,1960 sq. yards. 
r 1076.41 sq. feet. 
1 119.601 sq. yards. 
/ 11960.11 sq. yards. 
I 2.4711 acres. 
/ 1196014 sq. yards. 
10.38611 sq. miles. 

38.611 sq. miles. 



TABLE No. 81. 



French Measures of Weight with U. S. Avoirdupois 

Equivalents. 



10 milligrammes- 
10 centigrammes 
10 decigrammes- 



1 milligramme 
1 centigramme 
1 decigramme- 
1 GRAMME--- 



10 grammes ,1 decagramme 



10 decagrammes t hectagramme - 

10 hectagrammes 1 1 kilogramme-- 

llO kilogrammes jt metric quintal 

10 quintals 

1000 kilogrammes 



1 millier or tonne- 



Grammes. 



0.001 
0.01 
0.1 
1.0 

10.0 

100.0 
1000.0 



U. S. Equivalents. 



0.0154 grains. 

0.1543 grains. 

1.5432 grains. 

15.4323 grains, 
r 154.3235 grains. 
10.3527 ounces, 
r 1543.2349 grains. 
\ 3.5274 ounces. 

2.2046 pounds. 

220.4621 pounds, 
r 2204.6212 pounds. 
<^ 19.6841 cwt. 
[0.9842 tons. 



155 



TABLE NO. 82. 



hrench Measures of Volume with U. S. Equivalents. 







Cubic Metres. 


U. S Equivalents. 


1000 cu. millimetres 

1000 cu. centimetres 


1 cu. millimetre 

1 cu. Centimetre 

1 cu. decimetre - 


0.000000001 
0.000001 

0.001 

1.0 

1000- 


0.000061 cu. inches. 

0.061025 cu. inches, 
r 61.025 24 cu. inches. 
10.03531 56 cu. feet. 
/ 35.3156 cu. feet. 
1 1.308 cu. yards. 

1308.0 cu. yards. 


1000 cu. decimetres 

1000 cu. metres 


1 cu. METRE 

1 cu. decametre 



TABLE NO. S3. 

French Liquid Measure with U. S. Equivalents. 



10 centilitres 

10 decilitres- 

10 litres 

10 decalitres 



r 1 centilitre 

1 10 cu. centimetres 

1 decilitre 

1 LITRE "i 

1 cu. decimetre/ " 

L decalitre 

1 hectolitre 



Litres. 



0.01 
0.1 

1.0 

10.0 
100.0 



U. S. Equivalents. 



61025 cu. inches. 
0.0845 gills. 
6.1025 cu. inches. 
0.2114 pints. 
61.0i524cu. inches. 
0.26-12 gallons. 
2.6418 gallons- 
26 418 gallons. 




THE FAMOUS SCHICHAU ENGINE. 

Now owned by the C. C. Washburn Flouring Mills Co. 

Steam supplied by Heine Boilers. 



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159 




Bowling Green Office Building, 

NEW YORK. 

Equipped with 750 H. P. Heine Safety Boilers. 



INDEX. 



Page 

Absorption and transmission of heat in Heine Boilers 137 

Acadia Plantation. (Illustration) 96 

Air consumed in combustion of fuel 12 

Necessary for ventilation, amount of. Table 50 73 

Heating of 69 

Allegheny Traction Co. (Illustration) 54 

American Coals, composition of. Table 12 18, 19 

Anheuser-Busch Brewery. (Illustration) 118 

Asphalt 23 

Athletic Club Building. (Illustration) 146 

Bagasse 27 

Baldwin Ivocomotive Works. (Illustration) 72 

Bends, loss of head due to 51 

Beta Dredge Boat. (Illustration) 62 

Betz Building. (Illustration) 58 

Boiler, the 100 

Boilers, cast-iron end connections. (Illustration) 143 

Effect of oil in :... 46 

Energy stored in. Table 47 67, 69 

Relation to radiating surface ..^ 73 

Rating of 53, 64 

The horse power of 64 

Boiler Plant, a modern 119 

A modern, the boiler 122 

A modern, the chimney 120 

A modern, the furnace 121 

Boiler Tests, code of rules for 87 

Form of Record 94 

Boiler to contents of building, relation of. Table 52 74 

To radiating surface, relation of 74 

Boiler Specifications 100 

Boiler Tubes, standard sizes. Table 87 159 

Boiler room Mutual Light and Power Co .' 86 

Boiling points of substances. Table 4 8 

Bowling Green Building. (Illustration) 160 

Bridge Mill and Power Co. (Illustration) 28 

British and foreign coals, composition of. Table 13 20 

British thermal unit , 5 

Broad Street Station, Philadelphia. (Illustration) 65 

Buildings heated by steam 69 

Cape Town Tramways Co. (Illustration) 80 

Cast-iron end connections on sectional boilers. (Illustration) 143 

Circles, diameter and circumference and contents at one foot depth. Table 72 149 

Diameter and circumference. Table 71 148 

Chimneys and draft 107 

Chimney. Formulae 114 

Gases, weight and volume. Table 65 110 

Gases, velocity 112 

Chimney at Omaha and Grant S. and R. Works. (Illustration) 108 

161 



Page 

Chimney, example of an iron. (Illustration) Ill 

Of the Union Depot R'y Co. (Illustration) 115 

Sizes of. Table 68 117 

City and County Building. (Illustration) 40 

Coal, a short history of 16 

Classification of 17 

Combustion of 22 

Composition of American. Table 12 18, 19 

Composition of British and foreign. Table 13 20 

Composition of French. Table 14 22 

Coal mined in the United States. Table 11 17 

Coal, weights and measures of 17 

Wood, equivalent of 26 

Combustible, evaporating power of one pound of 13 

Heating power of one pound of 13 

Combustion 12 

Air consumed in 12 

Conditions for complete 12 

Data. Table 8 12 

And volume of products, temperature of. Table 10 14 

Of coal 22 

Of fuel, air consumed 12 

Of gas, resultant gases. Table 25 37 

Volume of gaseous products of 13 

Condensation, cylinder. Table 46 63 

Loss due to cylinder. Tables 44, 45 61 

Of steam in pipes 97 

Of steam in uncovered pipes. Table 60 97 

Of steam in covered pipes. Table 61 98 

Condensers 79 

Amount of water required by 81 

Contents of buildings, relation of boiler to. Table 52 74 

Covering for pipes. Table 61 98 

Cylinder condensation. Table 46 63 

l/oss due to. Tables 44, 45 61 

Denver Cons. Electric Light Co. (Illustration) 99 

Draft 107 

Reduction by friction. Table 69 117 

Duty of pumping engines 77, 78 

Electrical Unit of power 5 

Energy stored in steam boilers. Table 47 67, 69 

Engines, comparison of 64 

Duty of pumping '. 77, 78 

Horse-power of , 81 

Schichau. (Illustration) 156 

Weight of feed water required for. Tables 38, 39, 55 53, 54, 78 

Erection of Heine Boilers 131 

Evaporative power of one pound combustible. Table 9 13, 14 

Of different gases. Tables 24, 26, 30 ". 36, 37 

Expansion of solids. Table 6 10 

In Heine Boilers 143 

Factors of evaporation. Table 70 "147 

Factors of safety '. 105 

Forresters' Temple. (Illustration) 52 

Friction in flues .^ 117 

162 



Page 

Fusible plugrs. Table 5 S 

Feed Pipes, loss of pressure in. Table 36 50 

Rate of flow of water in. Table 35 50 

Size of boiler 51 

Feed Pump, example of pressure on plunger of 51 

Feed water, per cent of saving by heating. Table 40 55 

Feed water required for engines, weight of. Tables 38, 39 53, 54 

Firing, modes of 23 

French coals, composition of. Table 14 22 

French and English units of power, relation of. Table 2 6 

Compound units of power, relation of. Table 3 6 

French and United States measures of length. Table 79 155 

Measures of liquid. Table 82. 156 

Measures of surface. Table 80 155 

Measures of volume. Table 83 156 

Measures of weight. Table 81 155 

Fuel, advantages of oil as a 30 

Air consumed in combustion of 12 

Conditions for complete combustion of 12 

Gas 33 

Gas, cost of. Table 28 : 38 

Liquid 29 

Oil as a 30 

Saving by heating feed water. Table 40 55 

Tests with 32 



Gas. Analysis of natural. Table 29 39 

Composition of fuel. Tables 22, 23 35, 36 

Cost of fuel. Table 28 38 

Fuel 33 

Natural 39 

Oxygen absorbed and CO2 produced by. Table 27 37 

Relative values of fuel. Table 21 35 

Resultant gases of combustion of. Table 25 37 

Water evaporated by. Table 26 37 

Water evaporated by. Table 24 36 

Gases produced from combustion of one pound of wood. Table 16 26 

Velocity in chimney 112 

Gases, weight and volume of chimney. Table 65 110 

Heat ■ ; 5 

And power, units and relation of. Tables 1, 2, 3 6 

As a form of energy 5 

Measures of 5 

Heat of expansion, latent 7 

Heat of combustion of straw and tan bark 29 

Heat, sensible and latent 7 

Specific. Table 7 '. 11 

Heat transformations 6 

Heat transmitted by radiating surfaces. Table 51 13 

Per square foot of surface, diagram 70 

Per square foot of brick wall. Table 49 71 

Heating air 69 

Buildings by steam 69 

Feed water, per cent of saving. Table 40 55 

Liquids by steam .' 74 

Water by steam ■ 75 

Power of one pound of combustible .•. 13 

163 



i 




United Gas Improvement Building, 

PHILADELPHIA, PA. 

Contains 400 H. P. in Heine Boilers. 



Page 

Heine Safety Boiler Co. 's Factory, Phoenixville, Pa. (Illustration)..^ 66 

Heine Safety Boiler. (Illustration) 130 

Heine Boilers at Allegheny Traction Co. (Illustration) 54 

At Electric Storage Battery Co. (Illustration) 33 

At U. S. Navy Yard, New York. (Illustration) 68 

At World's fair. flUustration) 4 

At Orleans Traction Co, (Illustration) 19 

At Chicago Edison Station. (Illustration) 9 

At United Gas Improvement Building. (Illustration) 164 

Being moved. (Illustration) 39, 76, 83 

Over puddling furnace. (Illustration) 139 

Heine Boiler. 100 horse power. (Illustration) 102 

250 horse power. (Illustration) 123 

375 horse power. (Illustration) 126 

500 horse power. (Illustration) 83 

Absorption and transmission of heat in 137 

Description of •. 129 

Dryness of steam in 144 

Erection and walling in of 131 

Expansion in 143 

Ivongitudinal section of. (Illustration) 134 

Operation of 133 

Precipitation and discharge of impurities in 145 

Safety at high pressures 141 

Section of water leg. (Illustration) 132 

Separation of water in 144 

Specifications for boiler plates 141 

Superiority of 137 

Tests of : 32, 84, 

Helios 1 

Hotel Majestic. (Illustration) 90 

Horse power of boilers 53, 57, 64 

Of engines 81 

Of pumping engines 77 



Impurities in Heine Boilers. Precipitation and discharge of 145 

In water 41 

Inch in decimals, fractions of. Table 75 151 

In decimals of a foot. Tables 76 152 

In decimals of a square foot, square. Table 77 153 

Incrustation, causes of v 43 

Effects of 44 

Means of preventing 43, 44 

Independence Mine. (Illustration) 25 

Iron, weight of round and square. Table 74 151 



Latent and sensible heat 7 

Latent heat of expansion 7 

Length, French and United States measures of. Table 79 155 

Lignite and asphalt 23 

Lignite, composition of 24 

Liquid fuels. : 29 

Liquid, French and United States measures of. Table 82 156 

Heating by steam 74 

Mallinckrodt building. (Illustration) 69 

Mean effective pressure, diagram. Table 56 82 

IGS 



Page 

Mechanical unit of power 5 

Melting points of metals and solids. Table 5 8 

Metal plates, weight of. Table 73 150 

Municipal and County Buildings, Toronto. (Illustration) 31 

Natural Gas 39 

Analysis of . Table 29 39 

New Planters House. (Illustration) 48 

Oil as a fuel ; 30 

Oil in boilers, effect of 46 

Petroleum, composition of. Table 19 30 

Petroleum Oil, composition of. Table 20 30 

Philadelphia and Reading R. R. Station. (Illustraticn) 34 

Pipe coverings. Table 61 98 

Pipes, condensation of steam in 97 

Condensation of steam in, uncovered. Table 60 97 

Condensation of steam in, covered. Table 61 98 

Loss of pressure in feed. Table 36 50 

Ivoss of head due to bends in. Table 37 51 

Rate of flow of water in. Table 35 50 

Size of boiler feed 50 

Standard sizes of gas and water. Table 84 157 

Standard sizes of extra strong gas and water. Table 85 158 

Standard sizes of double extra strong gas and water. Table 86 159 

Plant, a modern boiler 119 

Plates, specifications for boiler 100, 141 

Plugs, fusible. Table 5 : 8 

Power, electrical units of 5 

Mechanical units of 5 

Relation of units of. Table 1 6 

Relation of French and United States units of. Table 2 6 

Relation of French and United States compound units of. Table 3 6 

Water 5 

Pressure, mean effective 82 

Pump, example of pressure on plunger of 51 

Pumping engines, duty of 77, 78 

Feed water required b5^ Table 55 78 

Horsepower and steam consumption of 77 

Radiating surface, heat transmitted by. Table 51 73 

Rivets, specifications for , 101 

Safety valves 75 

Philadelphia rule for 77 

By Philadelphia rule, dimensions of. Table 54 77 

United States rule for 75 

Saturated Stream, properties of. Table 41.. 57 

Scale (see Incrustation). 

Sectional boilers, cast-iron end constructions. (Illustration) 143 

Sensible and latent heats 7 

Separation of water in Heine Boilers 144 

Schichau engine. (Illustration) 156 

Solids, expansion of. Table 6 10 

Melting points of metals and. Table 5 8 

Specific Heat. Table 7 11 

Specifications, Boiler 100 

Steel 100 

166 



Page 

Specifications for boiler plates for Heine Boilers 141 

Square feet in square inches, decimals of. Table 78 154 

Square inches in decimals of a square foot. Table 77 153 

Stacks (see Chimneys). 

Steam 56 

Condensation in pipes. Tables 60, 61 97 

Heating buildings by 69 

Heating liquids by 74 

Heating water by. Table 53 75 

In Heine Boilers, dr3'ness of I44 

Motion of 59 

Outflow of. Tables 42, 43 59, 60 

Properties of saturated. Table 41 57 

Superheated 61 

Value of dry 60 

Straw 29 

Composition of. Table 18 29 

Heat of combustion of 29 

Substances, boiling point of. Table 4 8 

Surface, French and United States Measures of. Table 80 155 

Relation of boiler to radiating 74 

Transmission of heat by radiating. Table 51 73 

Superiority of Heine Bolers 137 



Tan Bark 29 

Temperature of combustion. Table 10 14 

Tests of Heine Boilers. Table 57 84 

Of locomotives with fuel oil 32 

Toledo Traction Co. (Illustration) 21 

Toronto Municipal and County Buildings. (Illustration) 31 

Transmission of heat by radiating surfaces. Table 51 73 

Tubes, standard sizes of boiler. Table 87 159 

Specifications for 101 



Unit, British thermal 5 

Units of heat and power. Tables 1, 2, 3 6 

Of power, mechanical 5 

Of power, electrical 5 

United States and French measures of length. Table 79 155 

Measures of liquids. Table 82 ! 156 

Measures of surface. Table 80 155 

Measures of volume. Table 83 156 

Measures of weight. Table 81 155 

Valves, safety ^5 

Valves, safety, Philadelphia rules for 77 

Safety, dimensions of, by Philadelphia rules. Table 54 77 

Safety, United States rules for - 75, 77 

Van Nuys Hotel. (Illustration) H 

Ventilation, amount of air necessary for. Table 50 73 

Volume, French and United States measures of. Table 83 156 



Walling in of Heine Boilers l-^l 

Warren Mfg. Co. (Illustration) 15 

Water - 41 



Page 

Water, analysis. Table 33 45 

Commercial analysis of 42 

Heating feed. Table 39 54 

Heating by steam. Table 53 75 

Impurities in 41 

L/eg of Heine Boilers. (Illustration) 14, 95 

Loss of pressure in pipes. Table 36 51 

Measurement of 50 

Power 5 

Rate of flow in pipes. Table 35 50 

Required per horse power 41, 53 

Required by condensers , 81 

Weight of 41, 49, 57 

Weight required for engines. Tables 38, 39 53, 54 

Weight, French and United States measures of. Table 81 155 

And measures of coal 17 

Of metal plates. Table 73 150 

Of square and round iron. Table 74 151 

Of water 41, 49, 57 

Of wood. Table 17 26 

Wood 24 

Composition of. Table 15 24 

Equivalent of coal 26 

Gases from the combustion of one pound. Table 16 26 

Weight of. Table 17 26 




Wilcox Building. 

LOS ANGELES, CAL. 

Power for Light and Heat furnished by Heine Boilers. 

168 



NOV 9 1908 



